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Neurotechnology

Neurotechnology encompasses any method or electronic device which interfaces with the nervous system to monitor or modulate neural activity.[1][2]

Common design goals for neurotechnologies include using neural activity readings to control external devices such as neuroprosthetics, altering neural activity via neuromodulation to repair or normalize function affected by neurological disorders,[3] or augmenting cognitive abilities.[4] In addition to their therapeutic or commercial uses, neurotechnologies also constitute powerful research tools to advance fundamental neuroscience knowledge.[5][6][7][8]

Some examples of neurotechnologies include deep brain stimulation, photostimulation based on optogenetics and photopharmacology, transcranial magnetic stimulation, transcranial electric stimulation and brain–computer interfaces, such as cochlear implants and retinal implants.


The field of neurotechnology has been around for nearly half a century but has only reached maturity in the last twenty years. Decoding basic procedures and interactions within the brain's neuronal activity is essential to integrate machines with the nervous system.[9] This is one of the central steps of the technological revolution based on a fusion of technologies that is blurring the lines between the physical, digital, and biological spheres. Integrating an electronic device with the nervous system enables monitoring and modulating neural activity as well as managing implemented machines by mental activity. Further work in this direction would have profound implications for improving existing and developing new treatments for neurological disorders and advanced "implantable neurotechnologies" as integrated artificial implants for various pieces of the nervous system.[9] Advances in these efforts are associated with developing models based on knowledge about natural processes in bio-systems that monitor and/or modulate neural activity. One promising direction evolves through studying the mother-fetus neurocognitive model.[10] According to this model, the innate natural mechanism ensures the embryonic nervous system's correct (balanced) development.[11] Because the mother-fetus interaction enables the child's nervous system to evolve with adequate biological sentience, similar environmental conditions can treat the injured nervous system. This means that the physiological processes of this natural neurostimulation during gestation underlie any noninvasive artificial neuromodulation technique.[11] This knowledge paves the way for designing and precise tuning noninvasive brain stimulation devices in treating different nervous system diseases within the scope of modulating neural activity.[11]

More specialized sectors of the neurotechnology development for monitoring and modulating neural activity are aimed at creating powerful concepts as "neuron-like electrodes",[12] "hybrid biotic–abiotic electrodes",[13] "planar complementary metal-oxide semiconductor systems",[14] "injectable bioconjugate nanomaterials",[15] "implantable optoelectronic microchips".[16][17]

The advent of brain imaging revolutionized the field, allowing researchers to directly monitor the brain's activities during experiments. Practice in neurotechnology can be found in fields such as pharmaceutical practices, be it from drugs for depression, sleep, ADHD, or anti-neurotics to cancer scanning, stroke rehabilitation, etc.

Many in the field aim to control and harness more of what the brain does and how it influences lifestyles and personalities. Commonplace technologies already attempt to do this; games like BrainAge,[18] and programs like Fast ForWord[19] that aim to improve brain function, are neurotechnologies.

Currently, modern science can image nearly all aspects of the brain as well as control a degree of the function of the brain. It can help control depression, over-activation, sleep deprivation, and many other conditions. Therapeutically it can help improve stroke patients' motor coordination, improve brain function, reduce epileptic episodes (see epilepsy), improve patients with degenerative motor diseases (Parkinson's disease, Huntington's disease, ALS), and can even help alleviate phantom pain perception.[20] Advances in the field promise many new enhancements and rehabilitation methods for patients with neurological problems. The neurotechnology revolution has given rise to the Decade of the Mind initiative, which was started in 2007.[21] It also offers the possibility of revealing the mechanisms by which mind and consciousness emerge from the brain.

  1. ^ Goering S, Klein E, Sullivan LS, Wexler A, y Arcas BA, Bi G, et al. (April 2021). "Recommendations for Responsible Development and Application of Neurotechnologies". Neuroethics. 14 (3): 365–386. doi:10.1007/s12152-021-09468-6. PMC 8081770. PMID 33942016.
  2. ^ Müller O, Rotter S (2017). "Neurotechnology: Current Developments and Ethical Issues". Frontiers in Systems Neuroscience. 11: 93. doi:10.3389/fnsys.2017.00093. PMC 5733340. PMID 29326561.
  3. ^ Cook MJ, O'Brien TJ, Berkovic SF, Murphy M, Morokoff A, Fabinyi G, et al. (June 2013). "Prediction of seizure likelihood with a long-term, implanted seizure advisory system in patients with drug-resistant epilepsy: a first-in-man study". The Lancet. Neurology. 12 (6): 563–71. doi:10.1016/s1474-4422(13)70075-9. PMID 23642342. S2CID 33908839.
  4. ^ Cinel C, Valeriani D, Poli R (31 January 2019). "Neurotechnologies for Human Cognitive Augmentation: Current State of the Art and Future Prospects". Frontiers in Human Neuroscience. 13: 13. doi:10.3389/fnhum.2019.00013. PMC 6365771. PMID 30766483.
  5. ^ Wander JD, Rao RP (April 2014). "Brain-computer interfaces: a powerful tool for scientific inquiry". Current Opinion in Neurobiology. 25: 70–5. doi:10.1016/j.conb.2013.11.013. PMC 3980496. PMID 24709603.
  6. ^ Golub MD, Chase SM, Batista AP, Yu BM (April 2016). "Brain-computer interfaces for dissecting cognitive processes underlying sensorimotor control". Current Opinion in Neurobiology. 37: 53–58. doi:10.1016/j.conb.2015.12.005. PMC 4860084. PMID 26796293.
  7. ^ Kim CK, Adhikari A, Deisseroth K (March 2017). "Integration of optogenetics with complementary methodologies in systems neuroscience". Nature Reviews. Neuroscience. 18 (4): 222–235. doi:10.1038/nrn.2017.15. PMC 5708544. PMID 28303019.
  8. ^ Rawji V, Latorre A, Sharma N, Rothwell JC, Rocchi L (2020-11-03). "On the Use of TMS to Investigate the Pathophysiology of Neurodegenerative Diseases". Frontiers in Neurology. 11: 584664. doi:10.3389/fneur.2020.584664. PMC 7669623. PMID 33224098.
  9. ^ a b Vázquez-Guardado A, Yang Y, Bandodkar AJ, & Rogers JA (2020). “Recent advances in neurotechnologies with broad potential for neuroscience research.” Nature neuroscience, 23(12), 1522-1536.
  10. ^ Val Danilov I (2024). “Child Cognitive Development with the Maternal Heartbeat: A Mother-Fetus Neurocognitive Model and Architecture for Bioengineering Systems.” In International Conference on Digital Age & Technological Advances for Sustainable Development (pp. 216-223). Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-75329-9_24
  11. ^ a b c Val Danilov I. (2024). “The Origin of Natural Neurostimulation: A Narrative Review of Noninvasive Brain Stimulation Techniques”. OBM Neurobiology 2024; 8(4): 260; doi:10.21926/obm.neurobiol.2404260.
  12. ^ Yang, X. et al. Bioinspired neuron-like electronics. Nat. Mater. 18, 510–517 (2019).
  13. ^ Rochford, A. E., Carnicer-Lombarte, A., Curto, V. F., Malliaras, G. G. & Barone, D. G. When bio meets technology: biohybrid neural interfaces. Adv. Mater. 32, e1903182 (2020).
  14. ^ Tsai, D., Sawyer, D., Bradd, A., Yuste, R. & Shepard, K. L. A very large-scale microelectrode array for cellular-resolution electrophysiology. Nat. Commun. 8, 1802 (2017).
  15. ^ Wu, X. et al. Sono-optogenetics facilitated by a circulationdelivered rechargeable light source for minimally invasive optogenetics. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 116, 26332–26342 (2019).
  16. ^ Mohanty, A. et al. Reconfgurable nanophotonic silicon probes for sub-millisecond deep-brain optical stimulation. Nat. Biomed. Eng. 4, 223–231 (2020).
  17. ^ Seo, D. et al. Wireless recording in the peripheral nervous system with ultrasonic neural dust. Neuron 91, 529–539 (2016).
  18. ^ Nintendo Company of America. BrainAge (2006). Based on the work of Ryuta Kawashima, M.D.
  19. ^ Broman SH, Fletcher J (1999). The changing nervous system: neurobehavioral consequences of early brain disorders. Oxford University Press US. ISBN 978-0-19-512193-3.
  20. ^ Doidge N (2007). The Brain That Changes Itself: Stories of Personal Triumph from the Frontiers of Brain Science. Viking Adult. ISBN 978-0-670-03830-5.
  21. ^ Olds JL (April 2011). "For an international decade of the mind". The Malaysian Journal of Medical Sciences. 18 (2): 1–2. PMC 3216206. PMID 22135580.
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