Back الحرب الروسية الشركسية Arabic روس-چرکس ساواشی AZB Guerra ruso-circasiana Spanish Guerre russo-circassienne French המלחמה הרוסית-צ'רקסית HE Perang Rusia-Adighe ID რუსეთ-ჩერქეზეთის ომი Georgian Урыс-адыгэ зауэ KBD Wojny rosyjsko-czerkieskie Polish روس - چرکسی جنگ PNB
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| Russo-Circassian War | |||||||||
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| Part of the Caucasian War, Russo-Caucasian conflict and Russian imperialism | |||||||||
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| Belligerents | |||||||||
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 Kabardia (East Circassia) (until 1822)
Aided by:  Ottoman Empire (1787–1792; 1806–1812; 1828–1829)[4]European adventurers (1818–1856)[5]  Caucasian Imamate (1848–1859) | ||||||||
| Commanders and leaders | |||||||||
 Catherine II (1763–1796) Paul I (1796–1801) Alexander I (1801–1825) Nicholas I (1825–1855) Alexander II (1855–1864) Pavel Tsitsianov (1787–1806) Fyodor Bursak (1799–1827) (DOW) Georgi Emmanuel (1815–1831) Aleksey Yermolov (1817–1827) Maxim Grigorievich Vlasov (1819–1843) Nikolay Yevdokimov (1820–1864) Aytech Qanoqo (1828–1844) (D)  Grigory Zass (1830–1848) (WIA) Pavel Grabbe (1831–1842) David Dadiani (1841–1845) Aleksandr Baryatinsky (1856–1862) Dmitry Milyutin (1861–1864) Michael Nikolaevich (1862–1864)…and others |
Qasey Atajuq (1763–1773) Misost Bematiqwa (1763–1788) Shuwpagwe Qalawebateqo (1807–1827) Ismail Berzeg (1823–1846) Hawduqo Mansur (1839–1846) Muhammad-Amin Asiyalav (1848–1859)  Seferbiy Zanuqo (1807–1860) (DOW) Gerandiqo Berzeg (1820–1864) (WIA) Mansur Ushurma (1791) (POW) (DOW) Psheqo Akhedjaqo (1797–1838) Kizbech Tughuzhuqo (1810–1840) † Jembulat Boletoqo (1814–1836) † Qerzech Shirikhuqo (1816–1864) Aytech Qanoqo (1828–1844) (D) Ale Khirtsizhiqo (1830s) † Teofil Lapinski (1857–1859) James Stanislaus Bell (1836–1839)…and others | ||||||||
| Units involved | |||||||||
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Before 1860: Foreign volunteers | |||||||||
| Strength | |||||||||
| 150,000[14]–300,000[15] regulars | 20,000[16]–60,000[17] regulars | ||||||||
| Casualties and losses | |||||||||
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Disputed |
1,200,000+[19][20] Total:1,615,000+ (Estimate)[19][20] | ||||||||
| During the Circassian genocide, approximately 1.5 to 2 million Circassian natives were slaughtered;[21] and about 1,500,000[22][23][24][25][26] indigenous highland Caucasians were mainly expelled to the Ottoman Empire, and a much smaller number of them were expelled to Persia. An unknown number of those who were expelled died during their deportation.[27] | |||||||||
| Part of a series on the |
| Circassians Адыгэхэр |
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 List of notable Circassians Circassian genocide |
| Circassian diaspora |
| Circassian tribes |
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Surviving Destroyed or barely existing |
| Religion |
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Religion in Circassia |
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The Russo-Circassian War,[b] also known as the Russian invasion of Circassia, was the 101-year-long invasion of Circassia by the Russian Empire.[28] The conflict started in 1763 (O.S.) with Russia assuming authority in Circassia, followed by Circassian refusal,[29] and ended with the last army of Circassia defeated on 21 May 1864 (O.S.). It was exhausting and casualty-heavy for both sides. The Russo-Circassian War was the longest war both Russia and Circassia have ever fought and the longest war in the Caucasus region.[30][28][31]
During and after the war, the Russian Empire employed a genocidal strategy of systematically massacring civilians, resulting in the Circassian genocide,[32][28][33][34] where up to 3,500,000 Circassians[35] were either killed or forcibly expelled to the Ottoman Empire (especially to modern-day Turkey; see Circassians in Turkey),[c] creating the Circassian diaspora.[28] While the war was initially an isolated conflict, Russian expansion through the entire region soon drew a number of other nations in the Caucasus into the conflict. As such, the war is often considered the western half of the Caucasus War.
During the war, the Russian Empire did not recognize Circassia as an independent polity, instead seeing Circassia as part of Russia that was under rebel occupation, despite the fact that the polity was not and had never been under Russian control.[43] Russian generals did not refer to the Circassians by their ethnic name. Instead, they called the Circassians "mountaineers", "bandits", and "mountain scum".[43][44]
The war has been subjected to historical revisionism and has garnered controversy because later Russian sources mostly ignored or downplayed the conflict; Russian state media and officials have gone as far as to claim that the conflict "never happened" and that Circassia "voluntarily joined Russia in the 16th century".[30][45] Several Russian imperial historians have recorded the expulsion and extermination campaign against Circassians by Russian military during the 1860s. Adolf Berzhe portrayed the expulsion of Circassians as essential for "Russian security" while Rostislav Fadeyev described the campaign as "one of the most vital tasks in Russian history". In 1861, Russian Tsar Alexander II publicly declared the imperial policy of the expulsion of all Circassians; followed by the state implementation of settler-colonial Russification and Christianization programs across the Caucasus.[46]
- ^ "Kafkas Rus Savaşı". Cerkesyaorg (in Turkish). Retrieved 16 May 2021.
- ^ Gvosdev 2000, pp. 111–112.
- ^ (in Georgian) "გურიის სამთავრო" (Principality of Guria). In: ქართული საბჭოთა ენციკლოპედია (Encyclopaedia Georgiana). Vol. 3: p. 314-5. Tbilisi, 1978.
- ^ Berkok, Ismail Hakkı (1958). Tarihte Kafkasya. Istanbul.
{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link) - ^ Richmond 2008.
- ^ Василий Потто — Кавказская война. Том 1. От древнейших времен до Ермолова.
- ^ Askerov, Ali (2015). Historical Dictionary of the Chechen Conflict. Rowman & Littlefield. p. 3.
- ^ "Эльбрусоид :: Библиотека :: Карачай в Кавказской войне XIX века". www.elbrusoid.org. Retrieved 9 January 2025.
- ^ "UNHCR Web Archive". webarchive.archive.unhcr.org. Retrieved 9 January 2025.
- ^ "КАРАЧАЙ И БАЛКАРИЯ В РУССКО-КАВКАЗСКОЙ ВОЙНЕ – Баразбиев М.И. – История – Статьи – Карачаевцы и балкарцы". karachai.ucoz.ru. Retrieved 9 January 2025.
- ^ Apollo Shpaksky. Notes of an old Cossack // Military collection. Number 2. February. 1873. p. 419-420.
- ^ Berger, Adolf (1868). Acts collected by the Caucasian Archaeographic Commission: Volume II (PDF). Main Directorate of the Viceroy of the Caucasus. p. 940.
- ^ Natho, Kadir (2005). "The Russo-Circassian War". Archived from the original on 12 May 2022. Retrieved 10 April 2021.
- ^ Mackie 1856, p. 291.
- ^ Baddeley 1908.
- ^ Mackie 1856, p. 292.
- ^ A, M. Rus Çerkez Savaşı
- ^ Hozhay, Dalhan (1998). Чеченцы в русско-кавказской войне [Chechens in the Russian-Caucasian war]. SEDA. ISBN 5-85973-012-8. (in Russian)
- ^ a b Cite error: The named reference
:022was invoked but never defined (see the help page). - ^ a b Richmond 2013a
- ^ Messenger 2023: "The corroboration between both Turkish and Russian documents puts the number of Circassian deaths by military operations and pre-planned massacres between 1.5 – 2 million; ..."
- ^ a b Richmond 2013a, back cover
- ^ a b Cite error: The named reference
Ahmed 2013 161was invoked but never defined (see the help page). - ^ a b Cite error: The named reference
:03was invoked but never defined (see the help page). - ^ Cite error: The named reference
:14was invoked but never defined (see the help page). - ^ a b Cite error: The named reference
:22was invoked but never defined (see the help page). - ^ McCarthy 1995:53, fn. 45
- ^ a b c d King 2008.
- ^ a b Henze 1992.
- ^ a b Bashqawi, Adel (15 September 2017). Circassia: Born to Be Free. Xlibris. ISBN 978-1543447644.
- ^ Shenfield 1999, p. 150.
- ^ Richmond 2013a
- ^ L.V.Burykina. Pereselenskoye dvizhenie na severo-zapagni Kavakaz. Reference in King.
- ^ Richmond 2008, p. 79
- ^ Messenger 2023
- ^ Geçmişten günümüze Kafkasların trajedisi: uluslararası konferans, 21 Mayıs 2005 (in Turkish). Kafkas Vakfı Yayınları. 2006. ISBN 978-975-00909-0-5.
- ^ King 2008, p. 96.
- ^ Cite error: The named reference
Richmond 2013 132was invoked but never defined (see the help page). - ^ Jones, Adam (2017). Genocide: A Comprehensive Introduction (3rd ed.). 711 Third Avenue, New York, NY 10017, USA: Routledge. p. 110. ISBN 978-1-138-78043-9. LCCN 2016025350.
Ninety-five to 97 percent of the entire Circassian population had been killed or deported in what contemporary Russian field reports referred to as an ochishchenie ("cleansing")
{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: location (link) - ^ Shenfield 1999
- ^ Gazetesi, Aziz ÜSTEL, Star. "Soykırım mı; işte Çerkes soykırımı – Yazarlar – Aziz ÜSTEL | STAR". Star.com.tr. Retrieved 26 September 2020.
{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link) - ^ Эльмесова, А. М. (4 December 2014). ИЗ ИСТОРИИ РУССКО-КАВКАЗСКОЙ ВОЙНЫ.
- ^ a b Richmond 2013a
- ^ Capobianco, Michael (13 October 2012). "Blood on the Shore: The Circassian Genocide". Caucasus Forum.
- ^ Cite error: The named reference
ReferenceAwas invoked but never defined (see the help page). - ^ Richmond 2013a, p. 96, chapter 4: 1864.
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