Perang Nagorno-Karabakh

Perang Nagornox-Karabakh
Bagian dari Konflik Nagorno-Karabakh
Searah jarum jam dari atas: Bekas APC Azerbaijan; pengungsi etnik Azerbaijan dari wilayah Armenia; monumen tank T-72 Armenia di Stepanakert; tentara Republik Nagorno Karabakh
Tanggal 20 Februari 1988 – 12 Mei 1994 (6 tahun, 2 bulan, 3 minggu dan 1 hari) Lokasi Nagorno-Karabakh, Armenia dan Azerbaijan Hasil Kemenangan Armenia[18] Gencatan senjata Protokol Bishkek yang masih berlaku Blokade Armenia oleh Turki sejak 1993[19] Perundingan perdamaian, tetapi masih menemui jalan buntu Konflik perbatasan sporadis antar kedua negara di garis kontak Perubahan wilayah Kemerdekaan de facto Republik Artsakh dan aneksasi 9% wilayah Azerbaijan de facto oleh Armenia.[20] Wilayah tersebut tetap diakui de jure secara internasional sebagai bagian Azerbaijan.[21]
Pihak terlibat
1988–1991 Oblast Otonom Nagorno Karabakh  RSS Armenia Federasi Revolusioner Armenia[1][2]	1988–1991  RSS Azerbaijan Front Rakyat Azerbaijan  Uni Soviet[3][4][5]
1991–1994 Republik Nagorno-Karabakh (Artsakh)  Armenia Suplai senjata  Rusia[6]  Yunani[7]	1991–1994  Azerbaijan Dukungan militer:  Turkey[8][9][10] Dukungan dari kelompok asing: Hezb-e-Islami[11] Militan Chechnya[12] Serigala Abu-Abu[13] Suplai persenjataan  Israel[14][15]  Ukraina[16]  Rusia[17]
Tokoh dan pemimpin
Levon Ter-Petrosyan Vazgen Sargsyan Vazgen Manukyan Serzh Sargsyan Gurgen Dalibaltayan Norat Ter-Grigoryants Tatul Krpeyan † Leonard Petrosyan Artur Mkrtchyan Georgi Petrosian Karen Baburyan Robert Kocharyan Samvel Babayan Arkady Ter-Tadevosyan Christopher Ivanyan Seyran Ohanyan Monte Melkonian † Jirayr Sefilian	Ayaz Mutallibov Yagub Mammadov Isa Gambar Abulfaz Elchibey Heydar Aliyev Mahammad Asadov †[22] Isgandar Hamidov Tofig Ismayilov †[23] Surat Huseynov Zulfi Hajiyev † Safar Abiyev Rahim Gaziyev Shamil Basayev[12] Gulbuddin Hekmatyar[11]
Kekuatan
20,000 tentara Nagorno Karabakh + 8,000 dari Armenia[24] 500 gerbong amunisi[25] 177–187 artileri[26] 90–173 tank[26] 290–360 kendaraan lapis baja[26] 3 pesawat tempur[26] 13 helikopter[26]	Total: 64,000 Turki: 350 pasukan (untuk melatih pasukan Azerbaijan) [27] Serigala Kelabu: 200[13] Hezb-e Islami: 1,000–3,000[28][29] Militan Chechnya: 300[30] Pasukan bayaran Ukraina: ~100[31][32] 10,000 gerbong persenjataan[25] 395 artileri[33] 436[26]–458[33] tank 558[26]–1,264[33] kendaraan lapis baja 389[26]–480 kendaraan tempur lapis baja 63[26]–170 pesawat tempur 45–51 helikopter
Korban
Tewas: 5,856[34]–6,000[35] Luka-luka: 20,000[36] Hilang: 196[34]	Tewas: 25,000–30,000[35][37][34] Luka-luka: 50,000[35] hilang: 4,210[38] 156 tank T-72 direbut pasukan Armenia[39] 47 pesawat hancur[40] Awal 1992, setidaknya: 55 T-72 hancur, 24 BMP-2 hancur, 15 APC hancur, 25 artileri berat hancur[41]
Korban penduduk sipil: 1,264 penduduk Armenia dan orang etnis Armenia.[34] 167–763 penduduk Azerbaijan tewas pada tahun 1992.[42] Jumlah seluruhnya tidak diketahui. Penduduk sipil hilang: 400 menurut Komisi Negara Karabakh[38] 749 menurut Komisi Negara Azerbaijan[38] Pengungsi: 724,000 penduduk etnik Azerbaijan[43] dari Armenia dan Nagorno Karabakh. 300,000–500,000 penduduk etnik Armenia[43] dari Azerbaijan, Nagorno-Karabakh dan Nakhichevan.

Perang Nagorno-Karabakh^[44] adalah konflik etnik dan wilayah yang terjadi di akhir 1980an hingga tahun 1994, di enklave Nagorno-Karabakh yang ada di barat daya Azerbaijan, antara etnik Armenia yang merupakan penduduk mayoritas di Nagorno-Karabakh yang didukung oleh Armenia melawan Azerbaijan. Dalam perang tersebut, kedua bekas negara bagian Uni Soviet tersebut saling berhadapan dalam perang yang berlarut-larut di kawasan pegunungan Karabakh, di mana Azerbaijan berusaha untuk menumpas gerakan separatis Armenia di wilayah itu. Sebelum perang terjadi, parlemen enklave mengeluarkan keputusan yang menginginkan penyatuan wilayahnya dengan Armenia lewat referendum (yang ditolak oleh warga etnik Azerbaijan) dikarenakan mayoritas masyarakat memilih untuk merdeka. Pada awalnya keinginan masyarakat etnik Armenia Nagorno-Karabakh untuk menggabungkan dirinya dengan Azerbaijan dilakukan dengan cara damai, tetapi saat Uni Soviet perlahan-lahan runtuh, wacana penggabungan itu justru berubah menjadi konflik kekerasan antar dua etnik tersebut, bahkan keduanya saling mengklaim adanya pembersihan etnik antara kedua belah pihak seperti Pogrom Sumgait, Pogrom Baku dan Pembantaian Khojaly yang menjadi contoh paling terkenal.^[45][46]

Kekerasan antaretnik mulai pecah saat parlemen Oblast Otonom Nagorno-Karabakh (yang ada di Azerbaijan) memutuskan untuk menggabungkan wilayahnya dengan Armenia pada 20 Februari 1988. Keputusan pemisahan diri dari Azerbaijan tersebut, merupakan hasil akhir dari konflik wilayah berkepanjangan antar kedua negara/etnik.^[47] Keputusan tersebut menimbulkan kemarahan negara induknya Azerbaijan sehingga menyebabkan pemerintah Azerbaijan memutuskan mencabut hak otonomi oblast tersebut. Menyadari hal tersebut, etnik mayoritas Armenia memutuskan mengadakan referendum yang menghasilkan mayoritas suara merdeka. Mereka kemudian memutuskan mendeklarasikan Republik Nagorno-Karabakh (yang tidak diakui negara lain).

Setelah runtuhnya Uni Soviet pada Desember 1991, ketegangan antar kedua negara yang baru merdeka tersebut menjadi semakin memanas dan akhirnya pecah menjadi konflik bersenjata pada awal tahun 1992. Upaya perdamaian dan mediasi yang ditawarkan sejumlah lembaga internasional seperti Organisasi untuk Keamanan dan Kerjasama di Eropa (OSCE), menemui kegagalan. Pada awal 1993, pasukan Armenia berhasil menguasai wilayah di luar batas bekas oblast Nagorno-Karabakh, sehingga menyebabkan kemarahan negara di sekitarnya yang mengancam akan terlibat dalam perang tersebut.^[48] Pada akhir perang pada tahun 1994, pasukan Armenia berhasil menguasai penuh enklaf tersebut (kecuali Wilayah Shahumyan) ditambah daerah-daerah di sekitarnya, terutama Koridor Lachin, jalur pegunungan yang menghubungkan Nagorno-Karabakh dengan daratan Armenia. Kedua negara kemudian mentandatangani gencatan senjata yang diusulkan Rusia pada Mei 1994 yang mengakhiri perang. Upaya-upaya mediasi dan pembicaraan damai antar kedua negara, sayangnya masih belum menemukan titik terang, sehingga status wilayah Nagorno-Karabakh menjadi tidak jelas. Di wilayah tersebut berdiri Republik Artsakh yang de facto merdeka dan adanya penguasaan 9% wilayah Azerbaijan oleh Armenia, tetapi keduanya tidak diakui secara internasional.^[49] Diperkirakan hampir 230,000 penduduk etnis Armenia yang sebelumnya tinggal di Azerbaijan dan 800,000 penduduk etnis Azerbaijan yang sebelumnya tinggal di Karabakh dan Armenia terpaksa mengungsi ke wilayah lain karena konflik ini.^[50]

1. ^ Ordway, John (30 July 2004). "Party Primer: Top Armenian Political Parties". WikiLeaks. Diarsipkan dari versi asli (For Official Use Only) tanggal 22 December 2015. Members of the ARF fought actively in the Karabakh conflict and the party had its own military units. Later, when Karabakh and Armenia formed regular armies, some of the Dashnak units merged with the armies, others were disarmed. 
2. ^ Rieff, David (1997). "Case Study in Ethnic Strife". Council on Foreign Relations. Diarsipkan dari versi asli tanggal 2016-06-24. Diakses tanggal 2019-03-27. The Dashnaks, of course, are the ones who did the heavy lifting on the ground. Their men, including a substantial number of volunteers from the diaspora, did a great deal of the fighting and dying before the cease-fire. 
3. ^ Hoge, James F. (2010). The Clash of Civilizations: The Debate. Council on Foreign Relations. hlm. 17. ISBN 9780876094365. In the last years of its existence, the Soviet government supported Azerbaijan because its government was dominated by former communists. 
4. ^ Eastern Europe, Russia and Central Asia. London: Europa Publications. 2002. hlm. 77. ISBN 9781857431377. Soviet security forces supported Azerbaijan's efforts to reimpose control over Nagornyi Karabakh and Armenian villages outside the enclave. 
5. ^ Truscott, Peter (1997). Russia First: Breaking with the West. London: Tauris Publ. hlm. 74. ISBN 9781860641992. Initially, the Soviet regime in the Kremlin appears to have supported Azerbaijan in its attempt to maintain the territorial integrity of the borders established by Stalin in 1921. 
6. ^ Benson, Brett V. (2012). Constructing International Security: Alliances, Deterrence, and Moral Hazard. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. hlm. 67. ISBN 9781107027244. Russia was widely viewed as supporting the Armenian position. Much of this perception stemmed from the fact that Russia transferred military support to Armenia during the Nagorno-Karabakh War. 
7. ^ "Strategic impact" (4). Bucharest: Romanian National Defence University "Carol I" Centre for Defence and Security Strategic Studies. 2010: 35. Diarsipkan dari versi asli tanggal 21 September 2013. Greece supported Armenia both by delivering military and economic assistance and diplomatic representation by promoting the Armenia's interests in the EU and NATO. 
8. ^ Cornell, Svante E. (1998). "Turkey and the Conflict in Nagorno Karabakh: A Delicate Balance". Middle Eastern Studies. 34 (1). JSTOR 4283917. The only country that constantly expressed its support for Azerbaijan is Turkey. 
9. ^ Osipova, Yelena; Bilgin, Fevzi (2013). Revisiting Armenian-Turkish Reconciliation (PDF). Washington, D.C.: Rethink Institute. hlm. 3. ISBN 978-1-938300-09-7. Diarsipkan dari versi asli (PDF) tanggal 2015-09-24. Diakses tanggal 2019-03-27. As the war over Nagorno Karabakh unfolded, and as Turkey sided with Azerbaijan ... 
10. ^ Balayev, Bahruz (2013). The Right to Self-Determination in the South Caucasus: Nagorno Karabakh in Context. Lexington Books. hlm. 70. ISBN 9780739178287. Turkey took the Azerbaijani position, showing special activity. It rendered active military help to Azerbaijan. In the Azerbaijani army there were Turkish officers-instructors and a group of the Azerbaijani men started training in Turkey. 
11. ^ ^{a b} Taarnby 2008, hlm. 6.
12. ^ ^{a b} Griffin, Nicholas (2004). Caucasus: A Journey to the Land Between Christianity and Islam. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. hlm. 185–186. ISBN 0-226-30859-6. 
13. ^ ^{a b} Brzezinski, Zbigniew; Sullivan, Paige, ed. (1997). Russia and the Commonwealth of Independent States: Documents, Data, and Analysis. Washington, D.C.: M. E. Sharpe. hlm. 616. ISBN 9781563246371. It is also revealed that a new force of 200 armed members of the Grey Wolves organization has been dispatched from Turkey in preparation for a new Azeri offensive and to train units of the Azeri army. 
14. ^ Murinson, Alexander (October 2014). "The Ties Between Israel and Azerbaijan" (PDF). Mideast Security and Policy Studies No. 110. Begin–Sadat Center for Strategic Studies. Diarsipkan dari versi asli (PDF) tanggal 3 November 2014. Israel supported the Azeri side in this conflict by supplying Stinger missiles to Azerbaijani troops during the war. 
15. ^ Dekmejian, Richard Hrair; Simonian, Hovann H. (2003). Troubled Waters: The Geopolitics of the Caspian Region. hlm. 125. ISBN 9781860649226. In addition to commercial links, Israel has given strong backing to Azerbaijan in its conflict with Armenia over Nagorno-Karabakh, which reportedly has included military assistance. 
16. ^ Azadian, Edmond Y. (1999). History on the Move: Views, Interviews and Essays on Armenian Issues. Wayne State University Press. hlm. 173. ISBN 9780814329160. But as subsequent events evolved it became all too apparent that Ukraine has steadfastly stood behind Azerbaijan in the Nagorno-Karabagh conflict all along. ...it was reported from Stepanakert that Ukraine had shipped 40 tanks to Azerbaijan. Later that number was raised to 59. Ukraine had also supplied Azerbaijan with Mig-21 attack places. 
17. ^ de Waal 2003, hlm. 200: "...the Russians also gave some assistance to Azerbaijan."
18. ^ decisive Armenian military victory
    • Broers, Laurence (2005). "The limits of leadership: Elites and societies in the Nagorny Karabakh peace process" (PDF). Accord. London: Conciliation Resources: 8. ISSN 1365-0742. Diarsipkan dari versi asli (PDF) tanggal 2017-02-18. Diakses tanggal 2019-03-27. Overlaying what is fundamentally a territorial dispute are the consequences of the 1991–94 war: a decisive Armenian military victory resulting in Armenian control of Nagorny Karabakh and the further occupation of seven districts surrounding it. 
    • Gahramanova, Aytan (2010). "Paradigms of Political Mythologies and Perspectives of Reconciliation in the Case of the Nagorno-Karabakh Conflict" (PDF). International Negotiation. Brill Publishers. 15 (1): 136. doi:10.1163/157180610X488218. Brokered by the Russian Minister of Defense, a ceasefire was signed in 1994 primarily as a result of the decisive Armenian military victory. 

    decisive

    • Dawisha, Karen; Parrott, Bruce, ed. (1997). Conflict, Cleavage, and Change in Central Asia and the Caucasus. Cambridge University Press. hlm. 119. A cease-fire was achieved in May 1994, after a decisive Armenian victory that included their occupation of approximately 20 percent of Azerbaijan's territory. 
    • "World Directory of Minorities and Indigenous Peoples – Armenia". Minority Rights Group International. 2007. The war ended in a decisive Armenian victory in 1994, with the Armenians of Karabakh (supported by Armenia) taking control not only of Nagorny Karabakh itself but also occupying in whole or in part seven regions of Azerbaijan surrounding the former NKAO. 

    military victory

    • Cornell, Svante (2005). Small Nations and Great Powers: A Study of Ethnopolitical Conflict in the Caucasus. Routledge. hlm. 93. ISBN 9781135796693. Thus by any standard, the war in Karabakh led to the military victory of the Karabakh Armenians. 
    • Popescu, Nicu (2010). EU Foreign Policy and Post-Soviet Conflicts: Stealth Intervention. Routledge. hlm. 96. ISBN 9781136851896. After approximately 20,000 deaths, the war ended with the military victory of Armenia. 
19. ^ HRW 1994, hlm. 129.
20. ^ Mulcaire, Jack (9 April 2015). "Face Off: The Coming War between Armenia and Azerbaijan". The National Interest. The mostly Armenian population of the disputed region now lives under the control of the Nagorno-Karabakh Republic, a micronation that is supported by Armenia and is effectively part of that country. 
    • de Waal, Thomas (13 June 2016). "Nagorno-Karabakh: Crimea's doppelganger". openDemocracy. Diarsipkan dari versi asli tanggal 2016-04-09. Diakses tanggal 2019-03-27. Following the Armenian victory in that conflict, confirmed by the 1994 ceasefire, Armenia has since carried out a de facto annexation of Karabakh. 
    • Cornell, Svante (2011). Azerbaijan Since Independence. New York: M.E. Sharpe. hlm. 135. ISBN 978-0-7656-3004-9. Following the war, the territories that fell under Armenian control, in particular Mountainous Karabakh itself, were slowly integrated into Armenia. Officially, Karabakh and Armenia remain separate political entities, but for most practical matters the two entities are unified." 
21. ^ "Armenia expects Russian support in Karabakh war". Hürriyet Daily News. 20 May 2011. Diakses tanggal 25 June 2013. While internationally recognized as Azerbaijani territory, the enclave has declared itself an independent republic but is administered as a de facto part of Armenia. 
22. ^ "Military chopper with Azeri elite shot down by Armenian terrorists...19 years later". Today.az. 2010-11-20. Diakses tanggal 2011-10-04. 
23. ^ Roman Glebov (1991-11-25). "Республики. В Азербайджане сбит вертолет с VIP на борту" [Republics. A helicopter with VIP on board has been shot down in Azerbaijan.] (dalam bahasa Rusia). Kommersant. Diakses tanggal 2010-04-16. 
24. ^ Kesalahan pengutipan: Tag <ref> tidak sah; tidak ditemukan teks untuk ref bernama CaucasianKnot
25. ^ ^{a b} Petrosian, David. "What Are the Reasons for Armenians' Success in the Military Phase of the Karabakh Conflict?" Noyan Tapan Highlights. 1 June 2000.
26. ^ ^{a b c d e f g h i} Khramchikin, Alexander A. (15 January 2010). На кавказских фронтах – ситуация патовая. Пока.... Nezavisimoye Voyennoye Obozreniye (dalam bahasa Rusia). 
27. ^ Demoyan, Hayk (2006). "Turkey and the Karabakh Conflict: Summary". Турция и Карабахский конфликт в конце XX – начале XXI веков. Историко-сравнительный анализ [Turkey and the Karabakh Conflict in the 1990s: a Comparative Historical Analysis] (PDF) (dalam bahasa Russian and English). Yerevan. hlm. 226. Turkey continued to provide military as well as economic aid to Azerbaijan. As further proof, the Turkish army and intelligence services launched undercover operations to supply Azerbaijan with arms and military personnel. According to Turkish sources, over 350 high-ranking officers and thousands of volunteers from Turkey participated in the warfare on the Azerbaijani side. Pemeliharaan CS1: Bahasa yang tidak diketahui (link)
28. ^ Charalampidis 2013, hlm. 6: "Different independent sources – expert, intelligence and official – estimated that the number of Afghan fighters during the period of 1993–1994 fluctuated between 1500–3000."
29. ^ Taarnby 2008, hlm. 7: "Estimates fluctuated wildly concerning how many Mujahedin actually entered Azerbaijan between 1993 and 1994. Numbers range from 1,000 to as high as 3,000."
30. ^ Charalampidis 2013, hlm. 3.
31. ^ Kesalahan pengutipan: Tag <ref> tidak sah; tidak ditemukan teks untuk ref bernama Topguns
32. ^ Gurdelik, Rasit (30 January 1994). "Azerbaijanis Rebuild Army with Foreign Help". The Seattle Times. hlm. A3. Diakses tanggal 10 January 2011. 
33. ^ ^{a b c} Barabanov, Mikhail. "Nagorno-Karabakh: Shift in the Military Balance". Moscow Defense Brief. Centre for Analysis of Strategies and Technologies (2/2008). Diarsipkan dari versi asli tanggal 26 August 2009. Diakses tanggal 27 May 2009. 
34. ^ ^{a b c d} (Rusia) Melik-Shahnazarov, Arsen. Нагорный Карабах: факты против лжи.
35. ^ ^{a b c} de Waal 2003, hlm. 285.
36. ^ Quoted in Bertsch, Gary (1999). Crossroads and Conflict: Security and Foreign Policy in the Caucasus and Central Asia. London: Routledge. hlm. 297. ISBN 0-415-92273-9. 
37. ^ "Winds of Change in Nagorno Karabakh Diarsipkan 6 December 2011 di Wayback Machine.." Euronews. 28 November 2009.
38. ^ ^{a b c} Kesalahan pengutipan: Tag <ref> tidak sah; tidak ditemukan teks untuk ref bernama OhanyanVelikhanova
39. ^ de Waal 2003, hlm. 316.
40. ^ Melik-Shakhnazaryan, Hrant (26 October 2012). "Небо над Арцахом надежно прикрыто". Voskanapat. Diarsipkan dari versi asli tanggal 27 October 2012. 
41. ^ Kesalahan pengutipan: Tag <ref> tidak sah; tidak ditemukan teks untuk ref bernama brothersroad
42. ^ Uppsala Conflict Data Program, Republic of Nagorno-Karabakh – civilians, viewed 3 May 2013
43. ^ ^{a b} "Gefährliche Töne im "Frozen War"." Wiener Zeitung. 2 January 2013.
44. ^ bahasa Azerbaijan: Qarabağ müharibəsi, dinamakan Perang Pembebasan Astrakh (bahasa Armenia: Արցախյան ազատամարտ, Artsakhyan azatamart) oleh etnik Armenia
45. ^ Rieff, David (June 1997). "Without Rules or Pity". Foreign Affairs. Council on Foreign Relations. 76 (2). Diarsipkan dari versi asli tanggal 2008-07-20. Diakses tanggal 13 February 2007. 
46. ^ Lieberman,, Benjamin (2006). Terrible fate : ethnic cleansing in the making of modern Europe. Chicago [Illinois]: Ivan R. Dee. hlm. 284–92. ISBN 1-56663-646-9. OCLC 61309274.  Parameter |url-status= yang tidak diketahui akan diabaikan (bantuan)
47. ^ Croissant, Michael P. (1998). The Armenia-Azerbaijan Conflict: Causes and Implications. London: Praeger. ISBN 0-275-96241-5. 
48. ^ resolusi DK PBB yang dikeluarkan pada 1993 menyerukan kepada Armenia untuk menarik diri dari daerah luar wilayah batas bekas Oblast Nagorno-Karabakh.
49. ^ Menurut data dari Thomas de Waal wilayah-wilayah dan rayon-rayon tersebut, yaitu: 1,936, Kelbajar; 1,835, Lachin; 802, Kubatly; 1,050, Jebrail; 707, Zangelan; 842, Aghdam; 462, Fizuli; 75, exclaves; sehingga total wilayah Azerbaijan yang dikuasai Armenia adalah7.709 km² (2.976 sq mi) 8.9%: De Waal. Black Garden, p. 286.
50. ^ The Central Intelligence Agency. "The CIA World Factbook: Transnational Issues in Country Profile of Azerbaijan". Diarsipkan dari versi asli tanggal 2016-07-09. Diakses tanggal 14 February 2007.  Military involvement denied by the Armenian government.