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The Ottoman Empire nominally ruled Mount Lebanon from its conquest in 1516 until the end of World War I in 1918.[1]
The Ottoman sultan, Selim I (1516–20), invaded Syria and Lebanon in 1516. The Ottomans, through the Maans, a great Druze feudal family, and the Shihabs, a Sunni Muslim family that had converted to Christianity,[2] ruled Lebanon until the middle of the nineteenth century.[citation needed]
Ottoman administration, however, was only effective in urban areas, while most of the country was ruled by tribal chieftains, based largely on their ability to collect taxes for the sultan.[3] The system of administration in Lebanon during this period is best described by the Arabic word iqta', which refers to a political system, similar to other feudal societies, composed of autonomous feudal families that were subservient to the emir, who himself was nominally loyal to the sultan; therefore, allegiance depended heavily upon personal loyalty.[4] The Ottoman Empire also provided minority religious communities autonomy through the millet system to the extent that they could regulate themselves, while recognizing the supremacy of the Ottoman administration.[5][6]
It was precisely this power structure, made up of fiefdoms, that allowed Bashir II, an emir from the Shihab dynasty in the Druze and Maronite districts of Mount Lebanon, to gain lordship over Mount Lebanon in Ottoman Syria during the first part of the 19th century.[3] It was during this period that Bashir II became an ally of Muhammad Ali who tried to secure Egyptian rule in Mount Lebanon.[6] This was also a period that saw increasing class and sectarian antagonisms that would define Lebanese social and political life for decades to come. The partition of Mount Lebanon into Maronite and Druze provinces raised animosities between the different sects, backed by European powers. This ultimately culminated in the 1860 massacre. After these events, an international commission of France, Britain, Austria, and Prussia intervened. The Ottoman Empire implemented administrative and judicial changes.[7]
- ^ Masters, Bruce (29 April 2013). The Arabs of the Ottoman Empire, 1516–1918: A Social and Cultural History. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-1-107-03363-4.
- ^ Khairallah, Shereen (1996). The Sisters of Men: Lebanese Women in History. Institute for Women Studies in the Arab World. p. 83.
- ^ a b Kisirwani, Maroun (October 1980). "Foreign Interference and Religious Animosity in Lebanon". Journal of Contemporary History. 15 (4): 685–700. doi:10.1177/002200948001500405. JSTOR 260504. S2CID 153402257.
- ^ Hamzeh, A. Nizar (July 2001). "Clientalism, Lebanon: Roots and Trends". Middle Eastern Studies. 37 (3): 167–178. doi:10.1080/714004405. JSTOR 4284178. S2CID 145091317.
- ^ Barkey, Karen; Gavrilis, George (8 March 2018), "The Ottoman Millet System: Non-Territorial Autonomy and its Contemporary Legacy", Non-territorial Autonomy in Divided Societies, Routledge, pp. 24–42, doi:10.4324/9781315667140-2, ISBN 978-1-315-66714-0, retrieved 7 May 2021
- ^ a b Mansfield, Peter (2019). A history of the Middle East. Nicolas Pelham (Fifth ed.). [London] UK. ISBN 978-0-14-198846-7. OCLC 1084350832.
{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link) - ^ Makdisi, Ussama (15 October 2019). Age of Coexistence. University of California Press. doi:10.2307/j.ctvp2n37g. ISBN 978-0-520-97174-5. S2CID 204436718.