History of Madagascar

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History of Madagascar
Ancient history c. 500 BCE–700 Exploration era c. 700–1500 Merina Kingdom 1540–1897 French protectorate 1882–1897 French colony 1897–1958 First Republic 1958–1975 Second Republic 1975–1992 Third Republic 1992–2010 High Transitional Authority 2009–2014 Fourth Republic 2014–present
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The History of Madagascar started from the ancient supercontinent of Pangaea, containing amongst others the African continent and the Indian subcontinent, and by the island's late colonization by human settlers from the Sunda Islands (Malay Archipelago) and from East Africa.^[1] These two factors facilitated the evolution and survival of thousands of endemic plant and animal species, some of which have gone extinct or are currently threatened with extinction. Trade in the Indian Ocean at the time of first colonization of Madagascar was dominated by Indonesian ships, probably of Borobudur ship and K'un-lun po types.^[2][3]

Over two thousand years, the island has received waves of settlers of diverse origins, primarily Austronesian and Bantu.^[4] Centuries of intermarriages between both groups created the Malagasy people, who are roughly an equal mixture of both groups. They speak the Malagasy, an Austronesian language with Bantu, French and Arabic influences.^[5][6][7][8]

By the Middle Ages, over a dozen distinct ethnic identities had emerged on the island, typified by rule under a local chieftain. Some communities, such as the Sakalava, Merina and Betsimisaraka, were unified by leaders who established kingdoms, which gained wealth and power through commerce with Europeans and Arabs. Between the 16th and 18th centuries, pirate activity in the coastal areas of Madagascar was common. The Sakalava and Merina kingdoms in particular exploited European trade to strengthen the power of their kingdoms, trading Malagasy slaves for European firearms and other goods. Beginning in the early 19th century, the British and French competed for influence in Madagascar.

By the turn of the 19th century, King Andrianampoinimerina had reunited the highly populous Kingdom of Imerina in the central highlands, with its capital at Antananarivo. His son Radama I the Great expanded its authority to the island's other polities and was the first Malagasy sovereign to be recognized by foreign states as the ruler of the greater Merina Kingdom. During the rule of Queen Ranavalona I (r. 1828–1861), the kingdom was further expanded to encompass most of the island. Madagascar's population is estimated to have declined by half from 5 million to 2.5 million between 1833 and 1839 from war, disease, slavery and other and violence. She also attempted to eradicate European and Christian influence in the country.^[9]

Christianity was made the state religion under Queen Ranavalona II (r. 1868–1883). In the 1880s, Britain recognised France's authority on the island. This led in 1890 to the Malagasy Protectorate, which was however rejected by the Kingdom of Madagascar, which led to the two Franco-Hova Wars which ended with France capturing the capital in September 1895. Conflict continued in the Menalamba rebellion against French rule that was defeated in 1897. The monarchy was dissolved, and the queen was exiled. Following conquest, the French abolished slavery in 1896, freeing approximately 500,000 slaves.^[10]

During French rule, Malagasy people were required to fulfill corvée labor on French-run plantations while access to education or skilled positions were limited, although basic services like schools and clinics were extended across the island. Several militant nationalist secret societies emerged in opposition to French rule, of which the most prominent was Vy Vato Sakelika formed in 1913. Many Malagasy were conscripted to fight for France during the First (1914–1918) and Second World Wars (1939–1945), and during the latter Madagascar came under Vichy French control before being captured by the British in the Battle of Madagascar and returned to Free French control in 1942. In 1944, Madagascar became an overseas territory with representatives in the French National Assembly. Militant nationalists launched a large uprising in 1947 that was brutally suppressed by 1949.

The country gained full independence from France in 1960. Madagascar's First Republic (1960–1972) was established as a democratic system modeled on that of France and led by President Philibert Tsiranana. Popular unrest led to the socialist Democratic Republic of Madagascar under Admiral Didier Ratsiraka (1975–1992) distinguished by economic isolationism and political alliances with pro-Soviet states. By 1992, free and fair multiparty elections were held, ushering in the democratic Third Republic (1992–2009). Under the new constitution, the Malagasy public elected successive presidents Albert Zafy, Didier Ratsiraka, and Marc Ravalomanana. This latter was ousted in the 2009 Malagasy political crisis by a popular movement under the leadership of Andry Rajoelina. Elections were held on December 20, 2013, to elect a new president and return the country to constitutional governance.