Somali Civil War

Somali Civil War
	Part of Conflicts in the Horn of Africa, The Ethiopian-Somali conflict, War against the Islamic State, Operation Enduring Freedom – Horn of Africa, and Global War on Terrorism
	; ; Top: An abandoned Mogadishu street in 1993, shortly after the fall of the Siad Barre government ; Bottom: Approximate map of the current phase of the Somali Civil War (updated March 2025)[dubious – discuss] Somalia: Under control of the Federal Government of Somalia, Jubaland, Puntland, the African Union Support and Stabilization Mission in Somalia, and the United States Jihadist groups: Under presence/control of Al-Qaeda backed Al-Shabaab and allies Under control of Islamic State backed Somalia Wilayah Somaliland: Under control of the self-declared state of Somaliland (For a more detailed map of the current military situation, see here)
Date	1981/1988/1991 (disputed) – present
Location	Somalia, with spillovers in Kenya and Ethiopia
Status	Ongoing Somaliland declares independence; Consolidation of states from 1998 to 2006; Ethiopian invasion against the Islamic Courts Union; Conflict between radical Islamists and the government continues; New government formed in 2012; Las Anod conflict between Somaliland and SSC-Khatumo begins in 2023; Ongoing Constitutional crisis in Somalia since 2023;
Belligerents
Commanders and leaders
Units involved
Casualties and losses
	Casualties:; 350,000–1,000,000+ killed (1991-2022); 50,000-200,000 killed in Isaaq genocide (1987-1989); 200,000-300,000 indirect deaths (1992); Displaced:; 2,000,000–3,800,000 displaced

The Somali Civil War (Somali: Dagaalkii Sokeeye ee Soomaaliya; Arabic: الحرب الأهلية الصومالية al-ḥarb al-’ahliyya aṣ-ṣūmāliyya) is an ongoing civil war that is taking place in Somalia. It grew out of resistance to the military junta which was led by Siad Barre during the 1980s. From 1988 to 1990, the Somali Armed Forces began engaging in combat against various armed rebel groups,^[83] including the Somali Salvation Democratic Front in the northeast,^[84] the Somali National Movement in the Somaliland War of Independence in the northwest,^[83] and the United Somali Congress in the south.^[85] The clan-based armed opposition groups overthrew the Barre government in 1991.^[86]

Various armed factions began competing for influence in the power vacuum and turmoil that followed, particularly in the south.^[87] In 1990–92, customary law temporarily collapsed,^[88] and factional fighting proliferated. In the absence of a central government, Somalia became a "failed state".^[89] This precipitated the arrival of UNOSOM I UN military observers in July 1992, followed by the larger UNITAF and UNOSOM II missions. Following an armed conflict between Somali insurgents and UNOSOM II troops during 1993, the UN withdrew from Somalia in 1995.^[87] After the central government's collapse and the withdrawal of UN forces, there was some return to customary and religious law in most regions.^[90]^[91] In 1991 and 1998, two autonomous regional governments were also established in the northern part of the country: Somaliland and Puntland.^[87] In the south Islamic Sharia courts began proliferating in response to lawlessness.^[92] This led to a relative decrease in the intensity of the fighting, with the Stockholm International Peace Research Institute removing Somalia from its list of major armed conflicts for 1997 and 1998.^[93]

In 2000, the Transitional National Government was established, followed by the Transitional Federal Government (TFG) in 2004. The trend toward reduced conflict halted in 2005, and sustained and destructive conflict took place in the south in 2005–07,^[94] but the battle was of a much lower scale and intensity than in the early 1990s.^[93] In 2006, Ethiopian troops invaded Somalia to depose the Islamic Courts Union (ICU) and install the TFG. The ICU effectively disintegrated, and soon after a large scale insurgency began against the occupation as other Islamist groups formed and established themselves as independent actors. Most notably Al-Shabaab rose to prominence in this period,^[95] and has since been fighting the Somali government and the AU-mandated AMISOM peacekeeping force for control of the country. Somalia topped the annual Fragile States Index for six years from 2008 up to and including 2013.^[96]

In October 2011, following preparatory meetings, Kenyan troops entered southern Somalia ("Operation Linda Nchi") to fight al-Shabaab^[97] and establish a buffer zone inside Somalia.^[98] Kenyan troops were formally integrated into the multinational force in February 2012.^[99] The Federal Government of Somalia was established in August 2012, constituting the country's first permanent central government since the start of the civil war.^[100] In 2023, the Las Anod conflict broke out in the northern part of Somalia between SSC-Khatumo and the Somaliland Army.^[101] International stakeholders and analysts subsequently began to describe Somalia as a "fragile state" that is making some progress toward stability.^[102]^[103]^[104]^[105]

^ A, Nelson, Elizabeth (September 14, 2021). Regional Politics and State Secession. Edward Elgar Publishing. p. 102. ISBN 978-1-83910-377-3.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
^ Gurdon, Charles (1996). "The Horn of Africa". Bulletin of the School of Oriental and African Studies. 59 (1): 63. doi:10.1017/S0041977X0002927X. ISSN 1474-0699.
^ "CRAXI HA FIRMATO L' ACCORDO 550 MILIARDI ALLA SOMALIA". La repubblica. September 24, 1985.
^ ^a ^b ^c Copson, Raymond W. (1994). Africa's Wars and Prospects for Peace. M. E. Sharpe. pp. 139–141. ISBN 9781563243004.
^ ^a ^b Metz, Country Studies, 1993, 213-214
^ Ingiriis, Mohamed (April 1, 2016). The Suicidal State in Somalia: The Rise and Fall of the Siad Barre Regime, 1969–1991. United States: University Press of America. pp. 147–150. ISBN 978-0-7618-6719-7 – via Google Books.
^ Einashe, Ismail (October 22, 2018). "In the Valley of Death: Somaliland's Forgotten Genocide". The Nation.
^ Cohen, Robin (November 2, 1995). The Cambridge Survey of World Migration. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-44405-7. in return for depriving the snm of its.
^ Cordesman, Anthony H. (October 6, 2016). After The Storm: The Changing Military Balance in the Middle East. Bloomsbury Academic. ISBN 978-1-4742-9257-3.
^ Cohen, Robin (November 2, 1995). The Cambridge Survey of World Migration. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-44405-7. in return for depriving the snm of its.
^ Cordesman, Anthony H. (October 6, 2016). After The Storm: The Changing Military Balance in the Middle East. Bloomsbury Academic. ISBN 978-1-4742-9257-3.
^ "Peacekeeping Contributor Profile: Australia". Archived from the original on October 16, 2017. Retrieved December 14, 2017.
^ "Peacekeeping Contributor Profile: Austria". Archived from the original on November 22, 2015. Retrieved December 14, 2017.
^ "Peacekeeping Contributor Profile: Bangladesh". Archived from the original on April 8, 2016. Retrieved December 14, 2017.
^ "Peacekeeping Contributor Profile: Belgium". Archived from the original on April 14, 2016. Retrieved December 14, 2017.
^ "Peacekeeping Contributor Profile: France". Archived from the original on December 15, 2017. Retrieved December 14, 2017.
^ "Peacekeeping Contributor Profile: Germany". April 3, 2014. Archived from the original on May 2, 2016. Retrieved December 13, 2017.
^ Axe, David (December 2, 2010). "WikiLeaked Cable Confirms U.S.' Secret Somalia Op". Wired. The Washington Post's Pauline Jelinek, citing anonymous sources, described U.S. Special Forces accompanying Ethiopian troops. CBS news revealed that U.S. Air Force gunships were active over southern Somalia during the Ethiopian blitz. Through all the reporting, U.S. officials remained vague or silent on the subject of Washington's involvement. All the same, evidence was mounting that the U.S. had played a leading role in the Ethiopian invasion.
^ "Somalia insurgents accuse Kenya over border security". Reuters. March 8, 2009. The group has been angry at Kenya since it helped capture Islamists trying to flee Ethiopian and Somali government troops in early 2007.
^ "Malawi to send peacekeepers to Somalia". IRIN. January 22, 2007. Retrieved February 9, 2007.
^ "SOMALIA: African Union endorses regional peace plan". IRIN. September 14, 2006. Retrieved August 25, 2013.
^ ^a ^b ^c ^d ^e ^f Cite error: The named reference CTC-Sentinel 2022 was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
^ Cite error: The named reference Hassan-2008 was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
^ Cite error: The named reference Sudan Trib-2006a was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
^ "Ogaden rebels destroy Ethiopian military convoy en route to Somalia". Sudan Tribune. Ogaden National Liberation Front. December 24, 2006. Retrieved December 14, 2023.
^ "Ogaden rebels to resist Ethiopian army if it attacks Somali-statement". Sudan Tribune. Ogaden National Liberation Front. November 28, 2006. Retrieved December 14, 2023.
^ "MA'AWISLEY: A DOUBLE-EDGED SWORD IN THE FIGHT AGAINST AL-SHABAAB – Rift Valley Institute". Retrieved March 10, 2025.
^ "Somalia: Islamist Group Supports President Sharif". Archived from the original on October 19, 2012. Retrieved February 14, 2009.
^ "In Somalia, U.S. Escalates a Shadow War – The New York Times". The New York Times. October 16, 2016. Archived from the original on October 23, 2016. Retrieved October 22, 2017.
^ David Brown (July 31, 2017). "US airstrike kills Somalia fighter under new Trump authority". Washingtonexaminer.com. Archived from the original on August 18, 2017. Retrieved October 22, 2017.
^ "Somalia: China Donates Military Equipment to Somalia to Aid War Against Terrorists". March 19, 2022.
^ "France reportedly bombs Somali town".
^ "Italy pledges to Somali gov't financial support to uproot Al shabaab". Shabelle. November 3, 2010. Archived from the original on October 8, 2021. Retrieved April 20, 2011.
^ "Russia offers support to Somalian army in fight against terrorist groups". ABC News. Retrieved August 20, 2023.
^ "Russia Offers Military Support to Somalia". VOA. May 26, 2023. Retrieved August 20, 2023.
^ Dhaysane, Mohammed (March 9, 2021). "New batch of Somali troops to get training in Turkey". aa.com.tr.
^ Weiss, Caleb (February 5, 2025). "US, UAE conducting airstrikes in northern Somalia". FDD's Long War Journal. Retrieved February 5, 2025.
^ "First British troops arrive in Somalia as part of UN mission". The Guardian. May 2, 2016. Archived from the original on May 2, 2016. Retrieved May 2, 2016.
^ "Italy pledges to Somali gov't financial support to uproot Al shabaab". Shabelle. November 3, 2010. Archived from the original on October 12, 2017. Retrieved April 20, 2011.
^
Multiple sources:
- "Exclusive: Eritrea reduces support for al Shabaab – U.N. report". Reuters. July 16, 2012.
- "How does 'poor' Eritrea afford to fund Al-Shabaab?". Africa Review. November 8, 2011. Archived from the original on October 12, 2017. Retrieved July 5, 2017.
- "Eritrea 'arming' Somali militia". BBC News. July 27, 2007. Retrieved May 20, 2010.*"UN probes Eritrea arms in Somalia – Africa". Al Jazeera English. May 16, 2009. Retrieved April 20, 2011.
- Gettleman, Jeffrey (July 27, 2007). "A U.N. Report on Somalia Accuses Eritrea of Adding to the Chaos". The New York Times. Retrieved May 20, 2010.
^
Multiple sources:
- Fraser-Rahim, Muhammad (July 17, 2020). "In Somalia, Iran Is Replicating Russia's Afghan Strategy". Foreign Policy. Archived from the original on July 17, 2020. Somali military officials maintain that Iran has been running secret operations to undermine the United States in Somalia, providing sophisticated weapons, improvised explosive100000 als used to make bombs. The military officials allege that Iran and its proxies are complicit in al-Shabab attacks on the U.S. military, Somali forces, and the African Union Mission in Somalia
- "The Growing Relationship between Iran and al-Shabab Movement in Somalia: Motives and Potential Consequences". Emirates Policy Center. Archived from the original on December 8, 2022. Retrieved July 27, 2020. For Iran, working with non-State actors such as Al-Shabaab and the Houthis is an essential part of its foreign policy, aimed at expanding its geopolitical influence throughout the region. Tehran has developed an unspoken alliance with Al-Shabaab with the aim of creating a covert intelligence network that will allow it to achieve its goals and support its interests in the Middle East and Africa.
- "Al-Qaeda Affiliate Reportedly Using Iran As Transit Point For Banned Exports". RFE/RL. October 13, 2018. Archived from the original on October 9, 2018.
- "Iran denies shipping arms to Islamist militants in Somalia". Reuters. February 14, 2013. Retrieved August 20, 2023.
^
Multiple sources:
- Bashir, Hamdi (October 7, 2020). "The Future of the Role of Iran's Quds Force in Africa". Emirates Policy Center. Archived from the original on December 8, 2022. The Quds Force has been working with agents and allies, such as Lebanon's Hezbollah and Somalia's Al-Shabaab, which are thought to have recently established relations with the Quds Force.
- Fazeli, Yaghoub (July 19, 2020). "Iran linking with Somalia's al-Shabab to funnel weapons to Houthis". Al Arabiya. Archived from the original on February 11, 2021.
- Fraser-Rahim, Muhammad (July 17, 2020). "In Somalia, Iran Is Replicating Russia's Afghan Strategy". Foreign Policy. Archived from the original on July 17, 2020. Somali police and finance ministry officials claim the Quds Force uses these networks to smuggle Iranian oil into Somalia and then sell cheap oil across Africa to subvert U.S. sanctions, with some of the proceeds used to support militants in Yemen and Somalia
- Bartell, Dawn L.; Gray, David H. (Fall 2012). "Hezbollah and Al Shabaab in Mexico". Global Security Studies. 3 (4): 100–112. Archived from the original on March 24, 2023.
^ "North Korean weapons used by terrorists in Somalia for attack on UN". Israel Defense. November 3, 2023. Retrieved November 3, 2020.
^
Multiple sources:
- Ahmed, Guled (February 9, 2021). "As Farmaajo digs in with Qatari backing, Somalia's election crisis grows worse". Middle East Institute. Archived from the original on February 9, 2021. Qatar has allegedly used al-Shabab to target groups it has identified as opposing its interests, including Somali politicians critical of Doha's role in the country and outside actors like the United Arab Emirates
- Lynch, Colum (November 28, 2012). "Qatar's support for Islamists muddles its reputation as neutral broker in Mideast". The Washington Post. Archived from the original on December 2, 2012. Qatar's cultivation of African Islamists, principally Somalia's al-Shabab insurgents, has similarly troubled the United States, which has accused the movement of providing a haven for al-Qaeda militants involved in attacks against Americans
- Mustafa, Awad; Singh, Karam (August 2, 2017). "Qatar in the Horn of Africa: Friend or Foe?". Small Wars Journal. Archived from the original on August 3, 2017.
- Yüksel, Engin; Tekineş, Haşim (August 26, 2021). "Turkish-Qatari approaches to conflict and crisis across the region". Clingendael. Archived from the original on August 26, 2021. Qatari individuals and government representatives are reported to have been in regular contact with Al-Qaeda and its affiliates in Syria, Iraq, Somalia and Yemen in order to exert geopolitical influence
^
Multiple sources:
- Houreld, Katharine (November 10, 2021). "Iranian-supplied arms smuggled from Yemen into Somalia, study says". Reuters. Archived from the original on November 10, 2021. Guns supplied by Iran to its Houthi allies in Yemen are being smuggled across the Gulf of Aden to Somalia, according to a Geneva-based think tank, where al Qaeda-linked al Shabab insurgents are battling a weak and divided government.
- Redondo, Raúl (July 20, 2020). "Iran allies with Al-Shabaab in Somalia to distribute arms to Houthi rebels". Atalayar. Archived from the original on August 19, 2023. Iran has established links with the jihadist group Al-Shabaab in Somalia to attack United States and other international forces in the African country and the region and to supply arms to Houthi rebels in Yemen
- Fazeli, Yaghoub (July 19, 2020). "Iran linking with Somalia's al-Shabab to funnel weapons to Houthis". Al Arabiya. Archived from the original on February 11, 2021.
^
UN sources:
- "Final report of the Panel of Experts on Yemen established pursuant to Security Council resolution 2140 (2014)" (PDF). un.org. UN Security Council. October 11, 2024. pp. 2, 12. Archived from the original (PDF) on November 8, 2024. In addition, increased smuggling activities involving small arms and light weapons are observed between the Houthis and Al-Shabaab, with indications of shared military supplies or a common supplier. ... Houthis are evaluating options to carry out attacks at sea from the Somali coast. To that end, they are strengthening ties with the terrorist group Harakat Al-Shabaab Al-Mujaahidiin (Al-Shabaab).
- "UN experts say Houthis collaborated with Al-Qaeda to weaken Yemeni government". Arab News. November 3, 2024. Archived from the original on November 8, 2024.
- "UN Panel of Experts Report Reveals Houthi Militia's Relationship with Al-Qaeda and Al-Shabaab Movement in Somalia". Yemen Shabab Net. November 2, 2024. Archived from the original on November 8, 2024.
^ ^a ^b Robyn Kriel; Briana Duggan (July 10, 2017). "CNN Exclusive: Somali pirate kings are under investigation for helping ISIS and al-Shabaab". CNN. Retrieved August 7, 2017.
^ "ISIL's First East African Affiliate Conducts Attacks in Somalia, Kenya". DefenseNews. December 29, 2015.
^ "Somalia: Pro-ISIL militants, Al Shabaab clash in deadly Puntland infighting". Garowe Online. December 24, 2015. Archived from the original on January 26, 2016. Retrieved January 28, 2016.
^ Cite error: The named reference vow was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
^ "Fierce clashes erupt between Somaliland, SSC Khatumo forces in Sool's Yeyle region". www.hiiraan.com. Retrieved March 8, 2025.
^ "SSC Khatumo leader calls for renewed offensive as Somaliland faces resistance over militia nationalization". www.hiiraan.com. Retrieved March 8, 2025.
^ "Ethiopia training Somaliland troops amid tension with Somalia". Garowe Online. June 30, 2020. Retrieved November 21, 2024.
^ emiratesleaks (August 3, 2024). "Exclusive: UAE Funds Construction of Israeli Military Base in Somaliland". الإمارات ليكس. Retrieved November 24, 2024.
^ "Board of Directors". Central Bank of Somalia. Archived from the original on May 18, 2015. Retrieved May 3, 2015.
^ "UN senior official calls for widespread support for Somali Government reform efforts" (PDF). United Nations. Archived (PDF) from the original on October 4, 2015. Retrieved May 3, 2015.
^ "Somalia - UNOSOM II: Background". United Nations. Archived from the original on January 15, 2017. Retrieved May 3, 2015.
^ "Richard B. Cheney - George H.W. Bush Administration". US Office of the Secretary of Defense. Archived from the original on May 18, 2015. Retrieved May 3, 2015.
^ ^a ^b "Twentieth Century Atlas – Death Tolls and Casualty Statistics for Wars, Dictatorships and Genocides". Users.erols.com. Archived from the original on April 26, 2011. Retrieved April 20, 2011.
^ Fearon, James D. (2004). "Why Do Some Civil Wars Last So Much Longer Than Others?". Journal of Peace Research. 41 (3): 275–301. CiteSeerX 10.1.1.19.3818. doi:10.1177/0022343304043770. S2CID 7158376.
^ Robinson, Colin (2016). "Revisiting the rise and fall of the Somali Armed Forces, 1960–2012". Defense & Security Analysis. 32 (3): 237–252. doi:10.1080/14751798.2016.1199122. S2CID 156874430.
^ "Somaliland profile". BBC News. January 2, 2024.
^ "Lt. Gen. Diomede Ndegeya". atmis-au.org. June 3, 2022.
^ "MAHAD KARATE | United Nations Security Council". un.org.
^ "Mahad Karate – RewardsForJustice". rewardsforjustice.net.
^ "Treasury Designates al-Shabaab Financial Facilitators". September 20, 2024.
^ Robinson, Colin D. "Rebuilding armies in southern Somalia: What currently should donors realistically aim for?," Conflict, Security & Development (2021): 320, 330-331.
^ "As ATMIS Looks To Withdraw". December 10, 2024.
^ "HEAD OF ATMIS HAILS UN COLLABORATION IN FOSTERING PEACE IN SOMALIA". atmis-au.org. November 18, 2023. Retrieved February 7, 2024.
^ AP, Omar Faruk and Cara Anna (March 1, 2023). "US increases military support for Somalia against al-Shabab". Defense News. Retrieved December 7, 2024.
^ "UN report indicates al-Qaeda and ISIS enjoy safe haven in Turkish-controlled Idlib". Nordic Monitor. February 9, 2022. Retrieved February 15, 2022.
^ "Somalia: Ideologial Differences Split Somalia's Al-Shabaab". allAfrica.com. December 20, 2009. Archived from the original on June 4, 2011. Retrieved April 20, 2011.
^
Multiple Sources:
- "S/2024/556". United Nations. Retrieved August 1, 2024.
- Maruf, Haran (October 26, 2016). "IS Militants Seize Town in Somalia's Puntland". voanews.com. Voice of America. Archived from the original on October 30, 2016. Retrieved October 29, 2016.
^ ^a ^b Hoehne, Markus Virgil (June 12, 2023). "The Dynamics of Conflict over Lasanod: Ongoing Fighting, Administration Building, Failed Mediation and Forecast". African Arguments. Retrieved August 28, 2024.
^ c.f. UCDP datasets Archived June 28, 2013, at the Wayback Machine for SNA, SRRC, USC, SNM, ARS/UIC and Al-Shabaab tolls.
^ UCDP non-state conflict Archived March 4, 2016, at the Wayback Machine tolls
^ "Somali Civil War". theowp.org. January 13, 2017. Retrieved January 1, 2023.
^ "Twenty Years of Collapse and Counting" (PDF). Centre For American Progress. September 2011.
^ "Somalia Genocide and Famine Warning". genocidewatch.com. December 18, 2022.
^ "Why a stable Somalia is in our interests' by Matt Baugh". www.gov.uk. February 22, 2012.
^ "Somali refugee displacements in the near region: Analysis and Recommendations" (PDF). UNCHR. Archived (PDF) from the original on September 1, 2022. Retrieved October 2, 2022.
^ "Somalia Complex crisis". ascaps.org. Archived from the original on October 2, 2022. Retrieved October 2, 2022.
^ ^a ^b Ken Menkhaus, 'Local Security Systems in Somali East Africa,' in Andersen/Moller/Stepputat (eds.), Fragile States and Insecure People,' Palgrave, 2007, 73. Archived February 22, 2014, at the Wayback Machine
^ Legum, Colin (1989). Africa Contemporary Record: Annual Survey and Documents, Volume 20. Africa Research Limited. p. B-394. ISBN 9780841905580. Archived from the original on January 25, 2015. Retrieved November 12, 2016.
^ Bongartz, Maria (1991). The civil war in Somalia: its genesis and dynamics. Nordiska Afrikainstitutet. p. 24. Archived from the original on January 25, 2015. Retrieved November 12, 2016.
^ Central Intelligence Agency (2011). "Somalia". The World Factbook. Langley, Virginia: Central Intelligence Agency. Archived from the original on July 1, 2014. Retrieved October 5, 2011.
^ ^a ^b ^c Central Intelligence Agency (2011). "Somalia - Government - Judicial branch". The World Factbook. Langley, Virginia: Central Intelligence Agency. Archived from the original on May 19, 2015. Retrieved May 2, 2015.
^ Ken Menkhaus, "Local Security Systems in Somali East Africa," Fragile States and Insecure People, 2007, 73.
^ Jamal, Ahmad Rashid. "Identifying Causes of State failure: The Case of Somalia". Universität Konstanz Politik- und Verwaltungswissenschaften. Archived from the original on May 22, 2015. Retrieved May 22, 2015.; Fergusson, James (January 13, 2013). "Somalia: A failed state is back from the dead". The Independent. Archived from the original on September 8, 2017. Retrieved May 18, 2015.; Anderson, Jon Lee (December 14, 2009). "The Most Failed State". The New Yorker. Archived from the original on March 28, 2015. Retrieved May 18, 2015.
^ Central Intelligence Agency (2003). "Somalia - Government - Judicial branch". The World Factbook. Langley, Virginia: Central Intelligence Agency. Archived from the original on March 4, 2016. Retrieved May 18, 2015.
^ The causes of war and the consequences of peacekeeping in Africa. Portsmouth, NH : Heinemann. 2002. p. 189. ISBN 978-0-325-07062-9.
^ Bakonyi, Jutta (April 17, 2013). "Authority and administration beyond the state: local governance in southern Somalia, 1995–2006". Journal of Eastern African Studies. 7 (2): 272–290. doi:10.1080/17531055.2013.776278. ISSN 1753-1055.
^ ^a ^b In 2007, Menkhaus wrote that 'armed conflict in Somalia has generally subsided since the early 1990s. Armed clashes continue to break out, but are nowhere near the scale and intensity of the fighting that destroyed Hargeisa in 1988–89 or Mogadishu in 1991–92.' Menkhaus, FSIP, 2007, 75.
^ Menkhaus 2007, op. cit., 76.
^ Mueller, Jason C. (January 2, 2018). "The Evolution of Political Violence: The Case of Somalia's Al-Shabaab". Terrorism and Political Violence. 30 (1): 116–141. doi:10.1080/09546553.2016.1165213. ISSN 0954-6553. Archived from the original on January 5, 2024. Retrieved December 29, 2023.
^ Messner, J.J. (June 24, 2014). "Failed States Index 2014: Somalia Displaced as Most-Fragile State". The Fund for Peace. Archived from the original on May 4, 2015. Retrieved May 18, 2015.
^ "Kenya launches offensive in Somalia". Reuters. October 16, 2011. Archived from the original on January 29, 2013. Retrieved May 2, 2015.
^ United Nations Security Council, Report of the Monitoring Group on Somalia and Eritrea pursuant to Security Council Resolution 2002 (2011), S/2012/544, p.226
^ "Kenya – KDF". AMIS. Archived from the original on April 2, 2013. Retrieved May 5, 2015.
^ "Communiqué on Secretary-General's Mini-Summit on Somalia". United Nations. Archived from the original on October 19, 2013. Retrieved May 18, 2015.
^ Hoehne, Markus V. (June 2023). The Conflict over Lasanod: Longterm and Immediate Factors, and Prospects for Settlement. Raad Peace Research Institute, University of Leipzig.
^ Balthasar, Dominik (November 19, 2014). "New Approaches Are Needed for State-Building in Somalia". Fair Observer. Archived from the original on June 26, 2015. Retrieved June 26, 2015.
^ Messner, J. J. (June 24, 2013). "Failed States Index 2013: What Were You Expecting?". The Fund for Peace. Archived from the original on June 26, 2015. Retrieved June 26, 2015.
^ "The European Union announces more than €124 million to increase security in Somalia". European Commissioner. Archived from the original on May 24, 2015. Retrieved May 22, 2015.
^ Kay, Nicholas (January 29, 2015). "Somalia's Year of Delivery". Goobjoog. Archived from the original on April 2, 2015. Retrieved May 22, 2015.

Cite error: There are <ref group=lower-alpha> tags or {{efn}} templates on this page, but the references will not show without a {{reflist|group=lower-alpha}} template or {{notelist}} template (see the help page).
Cite error: There are <ref group=nb> tags on this page, but the references will not show without a {{reflist|group=nb}} template (see the help page).

[1] A, Nelson, Elizabeth (September 14, 2021). Regional Politics and State Secession. Edward Elgar Publishing. p. 102. ISBN 978-1-83910-377-3.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)

[:22-2] Gurdon, Charles (1996). "The Horn of Africa". Bulletin of the School of Oriental and African Studies. 59 (1): 63. doi:10.1017/S0041977X0002927X. ISSN 1474-0699.

[3] "CRAXI HA FIRMATO L' ACCORDO 550 MILIARDI ALLA SOMALIA". La repubblica. September 24, 1985.

[Copson-4] Copson, Raymond W. (1994). Africa's Wars and Prospects for Peace. M. E. Sharpe. pp. 139–141. ISBN 9781563243004.

[Metz,_Country_Studies_1993-5] Metz, Country Studies, 1993, 213-214

[6] Ingiriis, Mohamed (April 1, 2016). The Suicidal State in Somalia: The Rise and Fall of the Siad Barre Regime, 1969–1991. United States: University Press of America. pp. 147–150. ISBN 978-0-7618-6719-7 – via Google Books.

[7] Einashe, Ismail (October 22, 2018). "In the Valley of Death: Somaliland's Forgotten Genocide". The Nation.

[cohen_1995-8] Cohen, Robin (November 2, 1995). The Cambridge Survey of World Migration. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-44405-7. in return for depriving the snm of its.

[cordesman_2016-9] Cordesman, Anthony H. (October 6, 2016). After The Storm: The Changing Military Balance in the Middle East. Bloomsbury Academic. ISBN 978-1-4742-9257-3.

[:40-10] Cohen, Robin (November 2, 1995). The Cambridge Survey of World Migration. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-44405-7. in return for depriving the snm of its.

[:41-11] Cordesman, Anthony H. (October 6, 2016). After The Storm: The Changing Military Balance in the Middle East. Bloomsbury Academic. ISBN 978-1-4742-9257-3.

[12] "Peacekeeping Contributor Profile: Australia". Archived from the original on October 16, 2017. Retrieved December 14, 2017.

[13] "Peacekeeping Contributor Profile: Austria". Archived from the original on November 22, 2015. Retrieved December 14, 2017.

[14] "Peacekeeping Contributor Profile: Bangladesh". Archived from the original on April 8, 2016. Retrieved December 14, 2017.

[15] "Peacekeeping Contributor Profile: Belgium". Archived from the original on April 14, 2016. Retrieved December 14, 2017.

[16] "Peacekeeping Contributor Profile: France". Archived from the original on December 15, 2017. Retrieved December 14, 2017.

[17] "Peacekeeping Contributor Profile: Germany". April 3, 2014. Archived from the original on May 2, 2016. Retrieved December 13, 2017.

[18] Axe, David (December 2, 2010). "WikiLeaked Cable Confirms U.S.' Secret Somalia Op". Wired. The Washington Post's Pauline Jelinek, citing anonymous sources, described U.S. Special Forces accompanying Ethiopian troops. CBS news revealed that U.S. Air Force gunships were active over southern Somalia during the Ethiopian blitz. Through all the reporting, U.S. officials remained vague or silent on the subject of Washington's involvement. All the same, evidence was mounting that the U.S. had played a leading role in the Ethiopian invasion.

[19] "Somalia insurgents accuse Kenya over border security". Reuters. March 8, 2009. The group has been angry at Kenya since it helped capture Islamists trying to flee Ethiopian and Somali government troops in early 2007.

[MALAWI-TO-SEND-PEACEKEEPERS-TO-SOMALIA-20] "Malawi to send peacekeepers to Somalia". IRIN. January 22, 2007. Retrieved February 9, 2007.

[Sauerpp-21] "SOMALIA: African Union endorses regional peace plan". IRIN. September 14, 2006. Retrieved August 25, 2013.

[CTC-Sentinel_2022-22] ^ ^a ^b ^c ^d ^e ^f Cite error: The named reference CTC-Sentinel 2022 was invoked but never defined (see the help page).

[Hassan-2008-23] Cite error: The named reference Hassan-2008 was invoked but never defined (see the help page).

[Sudan_Trib-2006a-24] Cite error: The named reference Sudan Trib-2006a was invoked but never defined (see the help page).

[sudantribune.com-25] "Ogaden rebels destroy Ethiopian military convoy en route to Somalia". Sudan Tribune. Ogaden National Liberation Front. December 24, 2006. Retrieved December 14, 2023.

[26] "Ogaden rebels to resist Ethiopian army if it attacks Somali-statement". Sudan Tribune. Ogaden National Liberation Front. November 28, 2006. Retrieved December 14, 2023.

[:4-27] "MA'AWISLEY: A DOUBLE-EDGED SWORD IN THE FIGHT AGAINST AL-SHABAAB – Rift Valley Institute". Retrieved March 10, 2025.

[28] "Somalia: Islamist Group Supports President Sharif". Archived from the original on October 19, 2012. Retrieved February 14, 2009.

[nytimes1-29] "In Somalia, U.S. Escalates a Shadow War – The New York Times". The New York Times. October 16, 2016. Archived from the original on October 23, 2016. Retrieved October 22, 2017.

[30] David Brown (July 31, 2017). "US airstrike kills Somalia fighter under new Trump authority". Washingtonexaminer.com. Archived from the original on August 18, 2017. Retrieved October 22, 2017.

[31] "Somalia: China Donates Military Equipment to Somalia to Aid War Against Terrorists". March 19, 2022.

[32] "France reportedly bombs Somali town".

[33] "Italy pledges to Somali gov't financial support to uproot Al shabaab". Shabelle. November 3, 2010. Archived from the original on October 8, 2021. Retrieved April 20, 2011.

[34] "Russia offers support to Somalian army in fight against terrorist groups". ABC News. Retrieved August 20, 2023.

[35] "Russia Offers Military Support to Somalia". VOA. May 26, 2023. Retrieved August 20, 2023.

[36] Dhaysane, Mohammed (March 9, 2021). "New batch of Somali troops to get training in Turkey". aa.com.tr.

[37] Weiss, Caleb (February 5, 2025). "US, UAE conducting airstrikes in northern Somalia". FDD's Long War Journal. Retrieved February 5, 2025.

[auto-38] "First British troops arrive in Somalia as part of UN mission". The Guardian. May 2, 2016. Archived from the original on May 2, 2016. Retrieved May 2, 2016.

[39] "Italy pledges to Somali gov't financial support to uproot Al shabaab". Shabelle. November 3, 2010. Archived from the original on October 12, 2017. Retrieved April 20, 2011.

[40] Multiple sources:
"Exclusive: Eritrea reduces support for al Shabaab – U.N. report". Reuters. July 16, 2012.

"How does 'poor' Eritrea afford to fund Al-Shabaab?". Africa Review. November 8, 2011. Archived from the original on October 12, 2017. Retrieved July 5, 2017.

"Eritrea 'arming' Somali militia". BBC News. July 27, 2007. Retrieved May 20, 2010.*"UN probes Eritrea arms in Somalia – Africa". Al Jazeera English. May 16, 2009. Retrieved April 20, 2011.

Gettleman, Jeffrey (July 27, 2007). "A U.N. Report on Somalia Accuses Eritrea of Adding to the Chaos". The New York Times. Retrieved May 20, 2010.

[41] "Exclusive: Eritrea reduces support for al Shabaab – U.N. report". Reuters. July 16, 2012.

[42] "How does 'poor' Eritrea afford to fund Al-Shabaab?". Africa Review. November 8, 2011. Archived from the original on October 12, 2017. Retrieved July 5, 2017.

[43] "Eritrea 'arming' Somali militia". BBC News. July 27, 2007. Retrieved May 20, 2010.*"UN probes Eritrea arms in Somalia – Africa". Al Jazeera English. May 16, 2009. Retrieved April 20, 2011.

[44] Gettleman, Jeffrey (July 27, 2007). "A U.N. Report on Somalia Accuses Eritrea of Adding to the Chaos". The New York Times. Retrieved May 20, 2010.

[41] Multiple sources:
Fraser-Rahim, Muhammad (July 17, 2020). "In Somalia, Iran Is Replicating Russia's Afghan Strategy". Foreign Policy. Archived from the original on July 17, 2020. Somali military officials maintain that Iran has been running secret operations to undermine the United States in Somalia, providing sophisticated weapons, improvised explosive100000 als used to make bombs. The military officials allege that Iran and its proxies are complicit in al-Shabab attacks on the U.S. military, Somali forces, and the African Union Mission in Somalia

"The Growing Relationship between Iran and al-Shabab Movement in Somalia: Motives and Potential Consequences". Emirates Policy Center. Archived from the original on December 8, 2022. Retrieved July 27, 2020. For Iran, working with non-State actors such as Al-Shabaab and the Houthis is an essential part of its foreign policy, aimed at expanding its geopolitical influence throughout the region. Tehran has developed an unspoken alliance with Al-Shabaab with the aim of creating a covert intelligence network that will allow it to achieve its goals and support its interests in the Middle East and Africa.

"Al-Qaeda Affiliate Reportedly Using Iran As Transit Point For Banned Exports". RFE/RL. October 13, 2018. Archived from the original on October 9, 2018.

"Iran denies shipping arms to Islamist militants in Somalia". Reuters. February 14, 2013. Retrieved August 20, 2023.

[46] Fraser-Rahim, Muhammad (July 17, 2020). "In Somalia, Iran Is Replicating Russia's Afghan Strategy". Foreign Policy. Archived from the original on July 17, 2020. Somali military officials maintain that Iran has been running secret operations to undermine the United States in Somalia, providing sophisticated weapons, improvised explosive100000 als used to make bombs. The military officials allege that Iran and its proxies are complicit in al-Shabab attacks on the U.S. military, Somali forces, and the African Union Mission in Somalia

[47] "The Growing Relationship between Iran and al-Shabab Movement in Somalia: Motives and Potential Consequences". Emirates Policy Center. Archived from the original on December 8, 2022. Retrieved July 27, 2020. For Iran, working with non-State actors such as Al-Shabaab and the Houthis is an essential part of its foreign policy, aimed at expanding its geopolitical influence throughout the region. Tehran has developed an unspoken alliance with Al-Shabaab with the aim of creating a covert intelligence network that will allow it to achieve its goals and support its interests in the Middle East and Africa.

[48] "Al-Qaeda Affiliate Reportedly Using Iran As Transit Point For Banned Exports". RFE/RL. October 13, 2018. Archived from the original on October 9, 2018.

[49] "Iran denies shipping arms to Islamist militants in Somalia". Reuters. February 14, 2013. Retrieved August 20, 2023.

[42] Multiple sources:
Bashir, Hamdi (October 7, 2020). "The Future of the Role of Iran's Quds Force in Africa". Emirates Policy Center. Archived from the original on December 8, 2022. The Quds Force has been working with agents and allies, such as Lebanon's Hezbollah and Somalia's Al-Shabaab, which are thought to have recently established relations with the Quds Force.

Fazeli, Yaghoub (July 19, 2020). "Iran linking with Somalia's al-Shabab to funnel weapons to Houthis". Al Arabiya. Archived from the original on February 11, 2021.

Fraser-Rahim, Muhammad (July 17, 2020). "In Somalia, Iran Is Replicating Russia's Afghan Strategy". Foreign Policy. Archived from the original on July 17, 2020. Somali police and finance ministry officials claim the Quds Force uses these networks to smuggle Iranian oil into Somalia and then sell cheap oil across Africa to subvert U.S. sanctions, with some of the proceeds used to support militants in Yemen and Somalia

Bartell, Dawn L.; Gray, David H. (Fall 2012). "Hezbollah and Al Shabaab in Mexico". Global Security Studies. 3 (4): 100–112. Archived from the original on March 24, 2023.

[51] Bashir, Hamdi (October 7, 2020). "The Future of the Role of Iran's Quds Force in Africa". Emirates Policy Center. Archived from the original on December 8, 2022. The Quds Force has been working with agents and allies, such as Lebanon's Hezbollah and Somalia's Al-Shabaab, which are thought to have recently established relations with the Quds Force.

[52] Fazeli, Yaghoub (July 19, 2020). "Iran linking with Somalia's al-Shabab to funnel weapons to Houthis". Al Arabiya. Archived from the original on February 11, 2021.

[53] Fraser-Rahim, Muhammad (July 17, 2020). "In Somalia, Iran Is Replicating Russia's Afghan Strategy". Foreign Policy. Archived from the original on July 17, 2020. Somali police and finance ministry officials claim the Quds Force uses these networks to smuggle Iranian oil into Somalia and then sell cheap oil across Africa to subvert U.S. sanctions, with some of the proceeds used to support militants in Yemen and Somalia

[54] Bartell, Dawn L.; Gray, David H. (Fall 2012). "Hezbollah and Al Shabaab in Mexico". Global Security Studies. 3 (4): 100–112. Archived from the original on March 24, 2023.

[43] "North Korean weapons used by terrorists in Somalia for attack on UN". Israel Defense. November 3, 2023. Retrieved November 3, 2020.

[44] Multiple sources:
Ahmed, Guled (February 9, 2021). "As Farmaajo digs in with Qatari backing, Somalia's election crisis grows worse". Middle East Institute. Archived from the original on February 9, 2021. Qatar has allegedly used al-Shabab to target groups it has identified as opposing its interests, including Somali politicians critical of Doha's role in the country and outside actors like the United Arab Emirates

Lynch, Colum (November 28, 2012). "Qatar's support for Islamists muddles its reputation as neutral broker in Mideast". The Washington Post. Archived from the original on December 2, 2012. Qatar's cultivation of African Islamists, principally Somalia's al-Shabab insurgents, has similarly troubled the United States, which has accused the movement of providing a haven for al-Qaeda militants involved in attacks against Americans

Mustafa, Awad; Singh, Karam (August 2, 2017). "Qatar in the Horn of Africa: Friend or Foe?". Small Wars Journal. Archived from the original on August 3, 2017.

Yüksel, Engin; Tekineş, Haşim (August 26, 2021). "Turkish-Qatari approaches to conflict and crisis across the region". Clingendael. Archived from the original on August 26, 2021. Qatari individuals and government representatives are reported to have been in regular contact with Al-Qaeda and its affiliates in Syria, Iraq, Somalia and Yemen in order to exert geopolitical influence

[57] Ahmed, Guled (February 9, 2021). "As Farmaajo digs in with Qatari backing, Somalia's election crisis grows worse". Middle East Institute. Archived from the original on February 9, 2021. Qatar has allegedly used al-Shabab to target groups it has identified as opposing its interests, including Somali politicians critical of Doha's role in the country and outside actors like the United Arab Emirates

[58] Lynch, Colum (November 28, 2012). "Qatar's support for Islamists muddles its reputation as neutral broker in Mideast". The Washington Post. Archived from the original on December 2, 2012. Qatar's cultivation of African Islamists, principally Somalia's al-Shabab insurgents, has similarly troubled the United States, which has accused the movement of providing a haven for al-Qaeda militants involved in attacks against Americans

[59] Mustafa, Awad; Singh, Karam (August 2, 2017). "Qatar in the Horn of Africa: Friend or Foe?". Small Wars Journal. Archived from the original on August 3, 2017.

[60] Yüksel, Engin; Tekineş, Haşim (August 26, 2021). "Turkish-Qatari approaches to conflict and crisis across the region". Clingendael. Archived from the original on August 26, 2021. Qatari individuals and government representatives are reported to have been in regular contact with Al-Qaeda and its affiliates in Syria, Iraq, Somalia and Yemen in order to exert geopolitical influence

[45] Multiple sources:
Houreld, Katharine (November 10, 2021). "Iranian-supplied arms smuggled from Yemen into Somalia, study says". Reuters. Archived from the original on November 10, 2021. Guns supplied by Iran to its Houthi allies in Yemen are being smuggled across the Gulf of Aden to Somalia, according to a Geneva-based think tank, where al Qaeda-linked al Shabab insurgents are battling a weak and divided government.

Redondo, Raúl (July 20, 2020). "Iran allies with Al-Shabaab in Somalia to distribute arms to Houthi rebels". Atalayar. Archived from the original on August 19, 2023. Iran has established links with the jihadist group Al-Shabaab in Somalia to attack United States and other international forces in the African country and the region and to supply arms to Houthi rebels in Yemen

Fazeli, Yaghoub (July 19, 2020). "Iran linking with Somalia's al-Shabab to funnel weapons to Houthis". Al Arabiya. Archived from the original on February 11, 2021.

[62] Houreld, Katharine (November 10, 2021). "Iranian-supplied arms smuggled from Yemen into Somalia, study says". Reuters. Archived from the original on November 10, 2021. Guns supplied by Iran to its Houthi allies in Yemen are being smuggled across the Gulf of Aden to Somalia, according to a Geneva-based think tank, where al Qaeda-linked al Shabab insurgents are battling a weak and divided government.

[63] Redondo, Raúl (July 20, 2020). "Iran allies with Al-Shabaab in Somalia to distribute arms to Houthi rebels". Atalayar. Archived from the original on August 19, 2023. Iran has established links with the jihadist group Al-Shabaab in Somalia to attack United States and other international forces in the African country and the region and to supply arms to Houthi rebels in Yemen

[64] Fazeli, Yaghoub (July 19, 2020). "Iran linking with Somalia's al-Shabab to funnel weapons to Houthis". Al Arabiya. Archived from the original on February 11, 2021.

[46] UN sources:
"Final report of the Panel of Experts on Yemen established pursuant to Security Council resolution 2140 (2014)" (PDF). un.org. UN Security Council. October 11, 2024. pp. 2, 12. Archived from the original (PDF) on November 8, 2024. In addition, increased smuggling activities involving small arms and light weapons are observed between the Houthis and Al-Shabaab, with indications of shared military supplies or a common supplier. ... Houthis are evaluating options to carry out attacks at sea from the Somali coast. To that end, they are strengthening ties with the terrorist group Harakat Al-Shabaab Al-Mujaahidiin (Al-Shabaab).

"UN experts say Houthis collaborated with Al-Qaeda to weaken Yemeni government". Arab News. November 3, 2024. Archived from the original on November 8, 2024.

"UN Panel of Experts Report Reveals Houthi Militia's Relationship with Al-Qaeda and Al-Shabaab Movement in Somalia". Yemen Shabab Net. November 2, 2024. Archived from the original on November 8, 2024.

[66] "Final report of the Panel of Experts on Yemen established pursuant to Security Council resolution 2140 (2014)" (PDF). un.org. UN Security Council. October 11, 2024. pp. 2, 12. Archived from the original (PDF) on November 8, 2024. In addition, increased smuggling activities involving small arms and light weapons are observed between the Houthis and Al-Shabaab, with indications of shared military supplies or a common supplier. ... Houthis are evaluating options to carry out attacks at sea from the Somali coast. To that end, they are strengthening ties with the terrorist group Harakat Al-Shabaab Al-Mujaahidiin (Al-Shabaab).

[67] "UN experts say Houthis collaborated with Al-Qaeda to weaken Yemeni government". Arab News. November 3, 2024. Archived from the original on November 8, 2024.

[68] "UN Panel of Experts Report Reveals Houthi Militia's Relationship with Al-Qaeda and Al-Shabaab Movement in Somalia". Yemen Shabab Net. November 2, 2024. Archived from the original on November 8, 2024.

[pirate_kings-47] Robyn Kriel; Briana Duggan (July 10, 2017). "CNN Exclusive: Somali pirate kings are under investigation for helping ISIS and al-Shabaab". CNN. Retrieved August 7, 2017.

[48] "ISIL's First East African Affiliate Conducts Attacks in Somalia, Kenya". DefenseNews. December 29, 2015.

[49] "Somalia: Pro-ISIL militants, Al Shabaab clash in deadly Puntland infighting". Garowe Online. December 24, 2015. Archived from the original on January 26, 2016. Retrieved January 28, 2016.

[vow-50] Cite error: The named reference vow was invoked but never defined (see the help page).

[51] "Fierce clashes erupt between Somaliland, SSC Khatumo forces in Sool's Yeyle region". www.hiiraan.com. Retrieved March 8, 2025.

[52] "SSC Khatumo leader calls for renewed offensive as Somaliland faces resistance over militia nationalization". www.hiiraan.com. Retrieved March 8, 2025.

[53] "Ethiopia training Somaliland troops amid tension with Somalia". Garowe Online. June 30, 2020. Retrieved November 21, 2024.

[54] ratesleaks (August 3, 2024). "Exclusive: UAE Funds Construction of Israeli Military Base in Somaliland". الإمارات ليكس. Retrieved November 24, 2024.

[56] "Board of Directors". Central Bank of Somalia. Archived from the original on May 18, 2015. Retrieved May 3, 2015.

[57] "UN senior official calls for widespread support for Somali Government reform efforts" (PDF). United Nations. Archived (PDF) from the original on October 4, 2015. Retrieved May 3, 2015.

[58] "Somalia - UNOSOM II: Background". United Nations. Archived from the original on January 15, 2017. Retrieved May 3, 2015.

[59] "Richard B. Cheney - George H.W. Bush Administration". US Office of the Secretary of Defense. Archived from the original on May 18, 2015. Retrieved May 3, 2015.

[Nstca-60] "Twentieth Century Atlas – Death Tolls and Casualty Statistics for Wars, Dictatorships and Genocides". Users.erols.com. Archived from the original on April 26, 2011. Retrieved April 20, 2011.

[61] Fearon, James D. (2004). "Why Do Some Civil Wars Last So Much Longer Than Others?". Journal of Peace Research. 41 (3): 275–301. CiteSeerX 10.1.1.19.3818. doi:10.1177/0022343304043770. S2CID 7158376.

[62] Robinson, Colin (2016). "Revisiting the rise and fall of the Somali Armed Forces, 1960–2012". Defense & Security Analysis. 32 (3): 237–252. doi:10.1080/14751798.2016.1199122. S2CID 156874430.

[64] "Somaliland profile". BBC News. January 2, 2024.

[65] "Lt. Gen. Diomede Ndegeya". atmis-au.org. June 3, 2022.

[66] "MAHAD KARATE | United Nations Security Council". un.org.

[67] "Mahad Karate – RewardsForJustice". rewardsforjustice.net.

[68] "Treasury Designates al-Shabaab Financial Facilitators". September 20, 2024.

[69] Robinson, Colin D. "Rebuilding armies in southern Somalia: What currently should donors realistically aim for?," Conflict, Security & Development (2021): 320, 330-331.

[70] "As ATMIS Looks To Withdraw". December 10, 2024.

[71] "HEAD OF ATMIS HAILS UN COLLABORATION IN FOSTERING PEACE IN SOMALIA". atmis-au.org. November 18, 2023. Retrieved February 7, 2024.

[72] AP, Omar Faruk and Cara Anna (March 1, 2023). "US increases military support for Somalia against al-Shabab". Defense News. Retrieved December 7, 2024.

[73] "UN report indicates al-Qaeda and ISIS enjoy safe haven in Turkish-controlled Idlib". Nordic Monitor. February 9, 2022. Retrieved February 15, 2022.

[74] "Somalia: Ideologial Differences Split Somalia's Al-Shabaab". allAfrica.com. December 20, 2009. Archived from the original on June 4, 2011. Retrieved April 20, 2011.

[75] Multiple Sources:
"S/2024/556". United Nations. Retrieved August 1, 2024.

Maruf, Haran (October 26, 2016). "IS Militants Seize Town in Somalia's Puntland". voanews.com. Voice of America. Archived from the original on October 30, 2016. Retrieved October 29, 2016.

[96] "S/2024/556". United Nations. Retrieved August 1, 2024.

[97] Maruf, Haran (October 26, 2016). "IS Militants Seize Town in Somalia's Puntland". voanews.com. Voice of America. Archived from the original on October 30, 2016. Retrieved October 29, 2016.

[Hoehne-76] Hoehne, Markus Virgil (June 12, 2023). "The Dynamics of Conflict over Lasanod: Ongoing Fighting, Administration Building, Failed Mediation and Forecast". African Arguments. Retrieved August 28, 2024.

[77] .f. UCDP datasets Archived June 28, 2013, at the Wayback Machine for SNA, SRRC, USC, SNM, ARS/UIC and Al-Shabaab tolls.

[78] UCDP non-state conflict Archived March 4, 2016, at the Wayback Machine tolls

[79] "Somali Civil War". theowp.org. January 13, 2017. Retrieved January 1, 2023.

[80] "Twenty Years of Collapse and Counting" (PDF). Centre For American Progress. September 2011.

[81] "Somalia Genocide and Famine Warning". genocidewatch.com. December 18, 2022.

[82] "Why a stable Somalia is in our interests' by Matt Baugh". www.gov.uk. February 22, 2012.

[84] "Somali refugee displacements in the near region: Analysis and Recommendations" (PDF). UNCHR. Archived (PDF) from the original on September 1, 2022. Retrieved October 2, 2022.

[85] "Somalia Complex crisis". ascaps.org. Archived from the original on October 2, 2022. Retrieved October 2, 2022.

[Lssisea-86] Ken Menkhaus, 'Local Security Systems in Somali East Africa,' in Andersen/Moller/Stepputat (eds.), Fragile States and Insecure People,' Palgrave, 2007, 73. Archived February 22, 2014, at the Wayback Machine

[Legum-87] Legum, Colin (1989). Africa Contemporary Record: Annual Survey and Documents, Volume 20. Africa Research Limited. p. B-394. ISBN 9780841905580. Archived from the original on January 25, 2015. Retrieved November 12, 2016.

[Tcwisigad-88] Bongartz, Maria (1991). The civil war in Somalia: its genesis and dynamics. Nordiska Afrikainstitutet. p. 24. Archived from the original on January 25, 2015. Retrieved November 12, 2016.

[2009factbook-89] Central Intelligence Agency (2011). "Somalia". The World Factbook. Langley, Virginia: Central Intelligence Agency. Archived from the original on July 1, 2014. Retrieved October 5, 2011.

[Cwfbsomb-90] Central Intelligence Agency (2011). "Somalia - Government - Judicial branch". The World Factbook. Langley, Virginia: Central Intelligence Agency. Archived from the original on May 19, 2015. Retrieved May 2, 2015.

[91] Ken Menkhaus, "Local Security Systems in Somali East Africa," Fragile States and Insecure People, 2007, 73.

[92] Jamal, Ahmad Rashid. "Identifying Causes of State failure: The Case of Somalia". Universität Konstanz Politik- und Verwaltungswissenschaften. Archived from the original on May 22, 2015. Retrieved May 22, 2015.; Fergusson, James (January 13, 2013). "Somalia: A failed state is back from the dead". The Independent. Archived from the original on September 8, 2017. Retrieved May 18, 2015.; Anderson, Jon Lee (December 14, 2009). "The Most Failed State". The New Yorker. Archived from the original on March 28, 2015. Retrieved May 18, 2015.

[Cwfbsomgjb-93] Central Intelligence Agency (2003). "Somalia - Government - Judicial branch". The World Factbook. Langley, Virginia: Central Intelligence Agency. Archived from the original on March 4, 2016. Retrieved May 18, 2015.

[:30-94] The causes of war and the consequences of peacekeeping in Africa. Portsmouth, NH : Heinemann. 2002. p. 189. ISBN 978-0-325-07062-9.

[95] Bakonyi, Jutta (April 17, 2013). "Authority and administration beyond the state: local governance in southern Somalia, 1995–2006". Journal of Eastern African Studies. 7 (2): 272–290. doi:10.1080/17531055.2013.776278. ISSN 1753-1055.

[Fsip7-96] In 2007, Menkhaus wrote that 'armed conflict in Somalia has generally subsided since the early 1990s. Armed clashes continue to break out, but are nowhere near the scale and intensity of the fighting that destroyed Hargeisa in 1988–89 or Mogadishu in 1991–92.' Menkhaus, FSIP, 2007, 75.

[97] Menkhaus 2007, op. cit., 76.

[:27-98] Mueller, Jason C. (January 2, 2018). "The Evolution of Political Violence: The Case of Somalia's Al-Shabaab". Terrorism and Political Violence. 30 (1): 116–141. doi:10.1080/09546553.2016.1165213. ISSN 0954-6553. Archived from the original on January 5, 2024. Retrieved December 29, 2023.

[99] Messner, J.J. (June 24, 2014). "Failed States Index 2014: Somalia Displaced as Most-Fragile State". The Fund for Peace. Archived from the original on May 4, 2015. Retrieved May 18, 2015.

[KenyaOffensive-100] "Kenya launches offensive in Somalia". Reuters. October 16, 2011. Archived from the original on January 29, 2013. Retrieved May 2, 2015.

[101] United Nations Security Council, Report of the Monitoring Group on Somalia and Eritrea pursuant to Security Council Resolution 2002 (2011), S/2012/544, p.226

[Akkdf-102] "Kenya – KDF". AMIS. Archived from the original on April 2, 2013. Retrieved May 5, 2015.

[Cosgmsos-103] "Communiqué on Secretary-General's Mini-Summit on Somalia". United Nations. Archived from the original on October 19, 2013. Retrieved May 18, 2015.

[:3-104] Hoehne, Markus V. (June 2023). The Conflict over Lasanod: Longterm and Immediate Factors, and Prospects for Settlement. Raad Peace Research Institute, University of Leipzig.

[Balthasar-105] Balthasar, Dominik (November 19, 2014). "New Approaches Are Needed for State-Building in Somalia". Fair Observer. Archived from the original on June 26, 2015. Retrieved June 26, 2015.

[FSI2013-106] Messner, J. J. (June 24, 2013). "Failed States Index 2013: What Were You Expecting?". The Fund for Peace. Archived from the original on June 26, 2015. Retrieved June 26, 2015.

[107] "The European Union announces more than €124 million to increase security in Somalia". European Commissioner. Archived from the original on May 24, 2015. Retrieved May 22, 2015.

[108] Kay, Nicholas (January 29, 2015). "Somalia's Year of Delivery". Goobjoog. Archived from the original on April 2, 2015. Retrieved May 22, 2015.

[a]

[nb 1]

[62]

[1]

[2]

[3]

[4]

[5]

[6]

[7]

[8]

[9]

[10]

[11]

[12]

[13]

[14]

[15]

[16]

[17]

[18]

[19]

[20]

[21]

[22]

[23]

[24]

[25]

[26]

[27]

[28]

[29]

[30]

[31]

[32]

[33]

[34]

[35]

[36]

[37]

[38]

[39]

[40]

[41]

[42]

[43]

[44]

[45]

[46]

[47]

[48]

[49]

[50]

[51]

[52]

[53]

[54]

[63]

[64]

[65]

[66]

[67]

[68]

[69]

[70]

[71]

[72]

[73]

[74]

[b]

[81]

[82]

[83]

[84]

[85]

[86]

[87]

[88]

[89]

[90]

[91]

[92]

[93]

[94]

[95]

[96]

[97]

[98]

[99]

[100]

[101]

[102]

[103]

[104]

[105]

Part of a series on the
History of Somalia

Prehistory Laas Geel (3,500-2,500 BCE ) Land of Punt (2,500–1,500 BCE)
Ancient Macrobians Ancient Somali City-States (c. 1st century) Azania city-states (c. 1st century)
Middle Ages Sultanate of Ifat (940–1415) Adal Sultanate (1415–1577) Ajuran Sultanate (13th–17th c.) Sultanate of Mogadishu (13th–16th c.)
Early modern Sultanate of the Geledi (17th–1911) Isaaq Sultanate (1750–1884) Habr Yunis Sultanate (1769–1907) Hiraab Imamate (17th–1890) Khedivate's Somali Coast (1874–1884) Majeerteen Sultanate (18th–1924) Sultanate of Hobyo (1876–1926)
Colonial period (1884–1960) Italian Somaliland (1889–1941) British Somaliland (1888–1960) Dervish State (1895–1920) Trust Territory (1941–1960)
Modern Somalia (since 1960) Somali Republic (1960-1969) Mohamed Siad Barre regime (1969–1991) Somaliland independence (1981–1991) Interim Government (1991–1997) Transitional National Government (2000–2004) Transitional Federal Government (2004–2012) Federal Government (2012–)
Somalia portal
v t e

Somali Civil War

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia · View on Wikipedia